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THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


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THE 

APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

Volume  I 


BY 

THOMAS   WHITNEY   SURETTE 

AND 

DANIEL  GREGORY  MASON 


FIFTEENTH  EDITION 


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NEW  YORK 
THE  H.   W.   GRAY  CO. 

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Copyright,  1907,  by 
THE   H.   W.   GRAY   COMPANY 


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Made  in  the  United  State*  oS  America 


PREFATORY   NOTE. 


This  book  has  been  prepared  in  order  to  provide  readers 
who  wish  to  listen  to  music  intelligently,  yet  without  going 
into  technicalities,  with  a  simple  and  practical  guide  to 
musical  appreciation  written  from  the  listener's  rather 
than  from  the  professional  musician's  standpoint. 

The  authors  believe  that  there  is  at  the  present  moment 
a  genuine  need  for  such  a  book.  Teachers  in  schools, 
colleges,  and  universities,  educators  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  the  music-loving  public  generally,  are  every 
day  realizing  more  vividly  the  importance  of  applying  to 
music  the  kind  of  study  which  has  long  been  fruitfully 
pursued  in  the  other  arts;  and  with  the  adoption,  in  1906, 
by  the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  of  musical 
appreciation  as  a  subject  which  may  be  offered  for  entrance 
to  college,  this  mode  of  studying  music  has  established 
itself  firmly  in  our  educational  system.  Yet  its  progress 
is  still  hampered  by  the  lack  of  suitable  text-books.  The 
existing  books  are  for  the  most  part  either  too  technical 
to  be  easily  followed  by  the  general  reader,  or  so  rhapso- 
dical and  impressionistic  as  to  be  of  no  use  to  him. 

In  the  following  pages  an  effort  has  been  made,  first, 
to  present  to  the  reader  in  clear  and  untechnical  language 


iU 


iv  PREFATORY  NOTE 

an  account  of  the  evolution  of  musical  art  from  the  primi- 
tive folk-song  up  to  the  symphony  of  Beethoven;  second, 
to  illustrate  all  the  steps  of  this  evolution  by  carefully 
chosen  musical  examples,  in  the  form  of  short  quotations 
in  the  text  and  of  complete  pieces  printed  in  a  supplement; 
third,  to  facilitate  the  study  of  these  examples  by  means 
of  detailed  analysis,  measure  by  measure,  in  many  cases 
put  into  the  shape  of  tabular  views;  and  fourth,  to  mark 
out  the  lines  of  further  study  by  suggesting  collateral  reading. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  the 
music  itself  is  the  central  point  of  the  scheme  of  study,  to 
which  the  reader  must  return  over  and  over  again.  Care- 
fully attentive,  concentrated  listening  to  the  typical  pieces 
presented  in  the  supplement  is  the  essence  of  the  work,  to 
which  the  reading  of  the  text  is  to  be  considered  merely 
as  an  aid.  These  pieces  are  for  the  most  part  not  beyond 
the  reach  of  a  pianist  of  moderate  ability. 

At  the  same  time,  the  authors  have  realized  that  some 
readers  who  might  profit  much  by  such  -study  will  not  be 
able  to  play,  or  have  played  for  them,  even  these  pieces. 
For  them,  however,  the  music  will  still  be  accessible  through 
mechanical  instruments. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  in 
the  study  of  musical  appreciation  is  the  unfamiliarity  of 
classical  music  to  the  ordinary  student,  the  use  of  an  instru- 
ment by  the  students  themselves  should  form  an  important 
part  of  the  work  in  classes  where  this  book  is  used  as  a 


PREFATORY    NOTE  v 

text-book.  It  is  hoped  that  with  such  practical  laboratory 
work  by  all  members  of  the  class,  and  with  the  help  of 
collateral  reading  done  outside  the  class  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher,  and  tested  by  written  papers  on  assigned 
topics,  the  course  of  study  outlined  here  will  be  found  well- 
suited  to  the  needs  of  schools  and  colleges,  as  well  as  of 
general  readers. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ELEMENTS.OF  MUSICAL  FORM 1 

I.  Introductory 1 

II.  What  to  Notice  First 3 

III.  Musical  Motives 4 

IV.  What  the  Composer  Does  With  His  Motives 6 

V.  The  First  Steps  as  Revealed  by  History      .  , 10 

VI.  A  Spanish  Folk-Song 12 

VII.  Balance  of  Phrases 13 

VIII.  Summary 14 


CHAPTER  II. 

FOLK-SONGS 16 

L  Folk-Songs  and  Art  Songs 17 

II.  An  English  Folk-Song 20 

III.  Key  and  Modulation      21 

IV.  Barbara  Allen 22 

V.  National  Characteristics  in  Folk-Songs 25 

VI.  An  Irish  Folk-Song      26 

VII.  A  German  Folk-Song 28 

VIII.  Summary SO 


CHAPTER  in. 

THE  POLYPHONIC  MUSIC  OF  BACH 81 

I.  What  is  Polyphony 32 

II.  An  Invention  by  Bach 33 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  1. 
Bach :  Two-voice,  Invention.     No.  VIII,  in  F-major 84 

III.  A  Fugue  by  Bach 37 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  2. 
Bach:  Fugue  No.  2,  in  C -minor,  in  three  voices.    **Well4empered  Clatnchord," 
Book  1 38 

IV.  General  QuAUTirs  of  Bach's  Work. 43 

vii 


viU  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PAUB 

THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT 48 

I.  Musical.  Character  of  Dances ,   .   .   .       48 

II.  Primitive  Dances     52 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  3, 

Corelli'  Gavotte  in  F-major 56 

III.  A  Bach  Gavotte 57 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  4. 
Bach :  Gavotte  in  D-minor,  jrom  the  Sixth  English  Suite 57 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  SUITE 62 

I.  Derivation  of  the  Suite 62 

11.  The  Suites  of  Bach 65 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  5. 
Bach  :  Prelude  to  English  Suite,  No.  3,  in  G-minor 65 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  6. 
Bach :  Sarabande  in  A-minor,  from  English  Suite,  No.  2 68 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  7. 

Bach:  Gigue,  Jrom  French  Suite,  No.  4,  in  E-flat 71 

III.  The  Historic  Importance  of  the  Suite. 72 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  RONDO 74 

I.  Derivation  of  the  Rondo 75 

II.  A  Rondo  by  Couperin ,   .  79 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  8. 

Couperin:  " Les  Moissonneurs"  ("  The  Harvesters")       ..<,..,, 80 

III.  From  Couperin  to  Mozart 83 

IV.  A  Rondo  by  Mozart 86 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  9. 

Mozart:  Rondo  from  Piano  Sonata  in  B-flal  major, 87 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  VARIATION  FORM  — THE  MINUET 9S 

I.  Variations  by  John  Bull      94 

II.  A  Gavotte  and  Variations  by  Rameau 97 

III.  Handel's  "Harmonious  Blacksmith  " 100 


CONTENTS  ix 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  10.  ^^^^ 

Handel:   **The  Harmonious  Blacksmith,"  from  the  Fifth  Suite  for  Clavichord.  101 

IV.  Haydn's  Andante  with  Vamations,  in  F-mtnoe   .  .  .  o 103 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  11. 

Haydn :  Andante  with  Variations,  in  F-minor. 104 

V.  The  Mintjet 108 


CHAPTER  Vm. 

SONATA-FORM,  I 110 

I.  Composite  Nature  of  the  Sonata 110 

n.  Essentials  of  Sonata-Form Ill 

ni.  A  Sonata  by  Phiup  Emanuel  Bach 114 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  12. 

Philip  Emanuel  Bach :  Piano  Sonata  in  F^minor,  first  movement 115 

IV.  Harmony  as  a  Part  op  Design 125 

V,  Summary 126 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SONATA-FORM,  U 128 

I.  Haydn  and  the  Sonata-Form 128 

Example  for  Analysb,  No.  13. 

Haydn :" Surprise  Symphony,"  first  movement 131 

II.  Mozart  and  the  Sonata-Form 134 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  14. 

Mozart :  Symphony  in  G-minor,  first  movement 136 

HI.  Mozart's  Artistic  Skill 138 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  SLOW  MOVEMENT 143 

I.  Varieties  of  Form 143 

II.  Slow  Movements  of  Piano  Sonatas 145 

in.  The  String  Quartet 148 


CONTENTS 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  15. 

Haydn: Adagio  in  E-flai  major,  from  the  String  Quartet  in  G-major,  op.  77,  p^o" 

No.l 149 

rV.  General  Characteristics 151 

V.  Form  of  Haydn's  Adagio 152 

VI.  Mozart  and  the  Classic  Style 153 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  16. 

Mozart :  Andante  from  String  Quartet  in  C-major » 156 

Vn.  Form  of  Mozart's  Andante 159 


CHAPTER  XI. 

BEETHOVEN  — I   . 161 

I.  General  Character  of  Beethoven's  Work 161 

II.  Analysis  of  a  Beethoven  Sonata 166 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  17. 

Beethoven :  Pathetiqve  Sonata,  first  movement 166 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  18. 

Beethoven :  Pathetique  Sonata,  second  Tnovement 170 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  19. 

Beethoven :  Pathstique  Sonata,  third  movement 171 

III.  Summary 174 


CHAPTER  XII. 

BEETHOVEN  — n 176 

I.  Form  and  Content 176 

II.  Beethoven's  Style 178 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  20. 

Beethoven:  The  Fifth  Symphony,  first  Tnovement 181 

III.  The  Dramatic  Element  in  Beethoven's  Music 185 

IV.  The  Significance  of  the  First  Movement  of  the  fifth  Symphony.  187 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

BEETHOVEN  — III     191 

I.  The  Slow  Movembint  Before  Beethoven 191 

II.  The  Slow  Movements  of  Beethoven's  Early  Symphonies 192 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  21. 

Beethoven :  The  Fifth  Symphony.     Slow  Tnovement 195 

III.  Individuality  of  the  Andante  of  the  Fifth  Symphony 198 

IV.  The  Harmonic  Plan 201 

V.  The  Universality  of  Beethoven's  Genius 203 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PAoa 

BEETHOVEN  — IV 205 

I.  Beethoven's  Humor 205 

n.  Scherzos  from  Beethoven's  Sonatas       209 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  22. 

Beethoven :  Scherzo  from  the  Twelfth  Sonata 209 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  23. 

Beethoven:  Scherzo  from  the  Fifteenth  Sonata „ 210 

ni.  The  Scherzos  of  Beethoven's  Symphonies 211 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  24. 

Beethoven :  Scherzo  from  the  Fifth  Symphony 218 

IV.  General  Stjmmary 221 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


CHAPTER   I. 

ELEMENTS  OP  MUSICAL  FORM. 

I.    Introductory. 

Of  the  thousands  of  people  who  consider  themselves 
lovers  of  music,  it  is  surorising  hov.^  few  have  any  real  appre- 
ciation of  it.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  out  of  any  score  of  persons 
gathered  to  hear  music,  whether  it  be  hymn,  song,  oratorio, 
opera,  or  symphony,  ten  are  not  listening  at  all,  but  are 
looking  at  the  others,  or  at  the  performers,  or  at  the  scenery 
or  programme,  or  are  lost  in  their  own  thoughts.  Five 
more  are  basking  in  the  sound  as  a  dog  basks  in  the  sun  — 
enjoying  it  in  a  sleepy,  languid  way,  but  not  actively  follow- 
ing it  at  all.  For  them  music  is,  as  a  noted  critic  has  said, 
*'a  drowsy  reverie,  relieved  by  nervous  thrills."  Then 
there  are  one  or  two  to  whom  the  music  is  bringing  pictures 
cr  stories:  visions  of  trees,  cascades,  mountains,  and  rivers 
fill  their  minds,  or  they  dream  of  princesses  in  old  castles, 
set  free  from  magic  slumber  bv  brave  heroes  from  afar. 
Perhaps  also  there  is  one  who  takes  a  merely  scientific  inter- 
est in  the  music :  he  is  so  busy  analysing  themes  and  labelling 
motives  that  he  forgets  to  enjoy.  Only  two  out  of  the 
twenty  are  left,  then,  who  are  actively  following  the  melo- 
dies, living  over  again  the  thoughts  of  the  composer,  really 
appreciating,    by  vigorous    and    delightful    attention,    the 

beauties  of  the  music  itself. 

1 


2  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

Can  we  not,  you  and  I,  join  the  ranks  of  these  true  lovers 
of  music?  Can  we  not  learn  to  free  our  minds  of  all  side 
issues  as  we  listen  —  to  forget  audience,  performers,  and 
scene,  to  forget  princesses  and  heroes,  to  forget  everything 
except  this  unique  experience  that  is  unfolding  itself  before 
our  ears  ?  Can  we  not,  arousing  ourselves  from  our  drowsy 
reverie,  follow  with  active  co-operation  and  vivid  pleasure 
each  tone  and  phrase  of  the  music,  for  itself  alone? 

One  thing  is  sure:  Unless  we  can  do  so,  we  shall  miss 
the  keenest  enjoyment  that  music  has  to  offer.  For  this 
enjoyment  is  not  passive,  but  active.  It  is  not  enough  to 
place  ourselves  in  a  room  where  music  is  going  on;  we  must 
by  concentrated  attention  absorb  and  mentally  digest  it. 
Without  the  help  of  the  alert  mind,  the  ear  can  no  more 
hear  than  the  eye  can  see.  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  asked  how  he 
had  made  his  wonderful  discoveries,  answered,  "By  intend- 
ing my  mind."  In  no  other  way  can  the  lover  of  music 
penetrate  its  mysteries. 

Knowledge  of  musical  technicalities,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  not  necessary  to  appreciation,  any  more  than  knowledge 
of  the  nature  of  pigments  or  the  laws  of  perspective  is  neces- 
sary to  the  appreciation  of  a  picture.  Such  technical  knowl- 
edge we  may  dispense  with,  if  only  we  are  willing  to  work 
for  our  musical  pleasure  by  giving  active  attention,  and  if 
we  have  some  guidance  as  to  what  to  Usten  for  among  so 
many  and  such  at  first  confusing  impressions.  Such  guid- 
ance to  awakened  attention,  such  untechnical  direction 
what  to  listen  for,  it  is  the  object  (^f  this  book  to  give. 


ELEMENTS   OF  MUSICAL    FORM  8 

II,     What  to  Notice  First. 

It  is  no  wonder,  when  one  stops  to  think  of  it,  that 
music,  in  spite  of  its  deeply  stirring  effect  upon  us,  often 
defeats  our  best  efforts  to  understand  what  it  is  all  about, 
and  leaves  us  after  it  is  over  with  the  uncomfortable  sense 
that  we  have  had  only  a  momentary  pleasure,  and  can  take 
nothing  definite  away  with  us.  It  is  as  if  we  had  been  pres- 
ent at  some  important  event,  without  having  the  least  idea 
why  it  was  important,  or  what  was  its  real  meaning.  All  of 
us,  at  one  time  or  another,  must  have  had  this  experience. 
And,  indeed,  how  could  it  be  otherwise.^  Music  gives  us 
nothing  that  we  can  see  with  our  eyes  or  touch  with  our 
hands.  It  does  not  even  give  our  ears  definite  words  that 
we  can  follow  and  understand.  It  offers  us  only  sounds, 
soft  or  loud,  long  or  short,  high  or  low,  that  flow  on  inex- 
orably, and  that  too  often  come  to  an  end  without  leaving 
any  tangible  impressions  behind  them.  No  wonder  we  are 
often  bewildered  by  an  experience  so  peculiar  and  so  fleeting. 
Yet  these  sounds,  subtle  as  they  are,  have  a  sense,  a  logic, 
an  order  of  their  own;  and  if  we  can  only  learn  how  to 
approach  them,  we  can  get  at  this  inner  orderliness  that 
makes  them  into  "music."  The  process  of  perception 
which  we  have  to  learn  here  is  somewhat  akin  to  certain 
more  familiar  processes.  For  example,  what  comes  to  our 
eyes  from  the  outer  world  is  simply  a  mass  of  impressions 
of  differently  colored  and  shaped  spots  of  light;  only  grad- 
ually, as  we  grow  out  of  infancy,  do  we  learn  that  one  group 
of  these  spots  of  light  shows  us  *'a  house,"  another  "a  tree," 


4  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

and  so  on.  Similarly  words,  as  we  easily  realize  in  the  case 
of  a  foreign  language,  are  to  the  untrained  ear  mere  isolated 
sounds  of  one  kind  or  another;  only  with  practice  do  we 
learn  to  connect  groups  of  them  into  intelligible  sentences. 
So  it  is  w^th  music.  The  sounds  are  at  first  mere  sounds, 
separate,  fragmentary,  imrelated.  Only  after  we  have 
learned  to  group  them  into  definite  melodies,  as  we  group 
spots  of  lights  into  houses  or  trees,  and  words  into  sentences, 
do  they  become  music  for  us.  To  approach  sounds  in 
such  a  way  as  to  "make  sense"  of  them  —  that  is  the 
art  of  listening  to  music. 

III.    Musical  Motr^s. 

The  first  step  in  making  sense  of  any  unfamiliar  thing  is 
to  get  quite  clearly  in  mind  its  central  subject  or  subjects, 
as,  for  example,  the  fundamental  idea  of  a  poem,  the  main 
contention  of  an  essay,  the  characters  of  a  novel,  the  text  of 
a  sermon.  All  music  worthy  of  the  name  has  its  own  kind 
of  subjects;  and  if  we  can  learn  to  take  note  of,  remember, 
and  recognize  them,  we  shall  be  well  on  the  road  to  under- 
standing what  at  first  seems  so  intangible  and  bewildering. 

A  possible  confusion,  due  to  the  use  of  terms,  must  here 
be  guarded  against.  The  word  "subject"  is  used  in  a 
special  sense,  in  music,  to  mean  an  entire  theme  or  melody, 
of  many  measures'  duration  —  thus  we  speak  of  "  the  first 
subject  of  Beethoven's  Fifth  Symphony,"  meaning  the 
entire  contents  of  measures  6-21.  Now  this  is  obviously 
a  different  meaning  of  the  word  "subject"  from  the  general 
one  we  use  when  we  speak  of  the  subject  of  a  poem  or  a 


ELEMENTS   OF   MUSICAL    FORM  5 

picture,  as  the  fundamental  idea  about  which  it  all  centers. 
This  long  musical  "subject"  all  centers  about  a  little  idea 
of  four  notes,  announced  in  the  first  two  measures  of  the 
symphony: 


i 


ins 


^= 


^ 


But  as  we  are  already  using  the  word  ** subject"  to  mean 
something  else,  we  must  have  another  name  for  this  brief 
characteristic  bit  out  of  which  so  much  is  made,  and  for 
this  the  word  "motive"  is  used.  Here  again  there  is  a 
difference  of  usage  which  must  be  noted.  When  we  speak 
of  a  "motive"  or  "leading  motive"  of  Wagner,  we  mean 
not  a  short  group  of  this  kind,  but  an  entire  melody  asso- 
ciated with  some  special  character  or  idea;  e.  g.,  "the  Sieg- 
fried motive."  Let  us  here,  however,  keep  the  word 
"motive  "  to  mean  a  short  characteristic  gi'oup  of  tones 
or  "figure,"  and  the  word  "subject"  to  mean  a  complete 
melody  or  theme  built  up  out  of  one  or  more  motives. 

The  smallest  elements  into  which  we  can  analyze  the 
subject-matter  of  music  are  ^^ motives''  —  that  is,  bits  of  tune, 
groups  of  from  two  to  a  dozen  tones,  which  have  an  individ- 
uality of  their  oivn,  so  that  one  of  them  cannot  possibly  be 
confused  with  another. 

"Yankee  Doodle,"  for  instance,  begins  with  a  motive  of 
seven  notes,  which  is  quite  individual,  and  wholly  different 
from  the  motive  of  six  notes  at  the  beginning  of  "  God  Save 
the  King,"  or  the  motive  of  five  notes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
"Blue  Danube"  waltz.  The  three  motives  are  so  different 
that  nobody  of  ordinary  musical  intelligence  would  con- 


6  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

found  them  one  with  another,  any  more  than  he  would  con- 
found the  subject  of  Longfellow's  "Psalm  of  Life"  with 
that  of  Browning's  "Incident  of  the  French  Camp,"  or  the 
characters  in  "Dombey  and  Son"  with  those  in  "Tom 
Jones."  The  whole  musical  individuality  of  each  of  the 
three  tunes  grows  out  of  the  individuahty  of  its  special 
motive. 

Here,  evidently,  is  a  matter  of  primary  importance  to 
the  would-be  intelligent  music  lover.  If  he  can  learn  to 
distinguish  with  certainty  whatever  "motives"  he  hears, 
half  the  battle  is  already  gained. 

Four  points  will  be  noticeable  in  any  motive  he  may 
hear.  Its  notes  will  vary  as  to  (1)  length,  (2)  accent,  (3) 
meter  or  grouping  into  regular  measures  of  two,  three,  or 
four  notes,  and  (4)  pitch.  If  he  can  once  form  the  habit 
of  noticing  them,  he  will  have  no  further  difficulty  in  recog- 
nizing the  themes  of  any  music,  and,  what  is  even  more 
important,  following  the  various  evolutions  through  which 
they  pass  as  the  composer  works  out  his  ideas.  The 
importance  of  such  active  participation  in  the  composer's 
thought  cannot  be  exaggerated.  Without  it  there  cannot 
be  any  true  appreciation  of  music;  through  it  alone  does  the 
listener  emerge  from  "drowsy  reverie,  relieved  by  nervous 
thrills"  into  the  clear  daylight  of  genuine  artistic  enjoyment. 

IV.     What  the  Composer  does  with  his  Motives. 

Let  us  put  ourselves  now  in  the  place  of  a  composer 
who  has  thought  of  certain  motives,  and  who  wishes  to 
make  them  into  a  complete  piece  of  music.     Wniat  shall  we 


ELEMENTS   OF   MUSICAL    FORM  1 

do  next  with  these  scraps  of  melody,  attractive  but  frag- 
mentary? Now,  one  thing  we  can  see  at  once  from  our 
knowledge  of  arts  other  than  music.  We  must  somehow 
or  other  keep  repeating  our  central  ideas,  or  our  piece  will 
wander  off  into  mazes  and  fail  to  have  any  unity  or  intelli- 
gibility; yet  we  must  also  vary  these  repetitions,  or  they 
will  become  monotonous,  and  the  finished  piece  will  have 
no  variety  or  sustained  interest.  The  poet  must  keep 
harking  back  to  the  main  theme  of  his  poem,  or  it  will 
degenerate  into  an  incoherent  rhapsody;  but  he  must  present 
new  phases  of  the  root  idea,  or  he  will  simply  repeat  him- 
self and  bore  his  readers.  The  architect,  having  chosen 
a  certain  kind  of  column,  say,  for  his  building,  must  not 
place  next  to  it  another  style  of  column,  from  a  different 
country  and  period,  or  his  building  will  become  a  mess,  a 
medley,  a  nightmare;  but  neither  must  he  make  his  entire 
building  one  long  colonnade  of  exactly  similar  columns, 
for  then  it  would  be  hopelessly  dull.  In  short,  every  artist 
has  to  solve  in  his  own  way  the  problem  of  combining 
unity  of  general  imjyression  with  variety  of  detail.  Without 
either  one  of  these  essentials,  no  art  can  be  beautiful. 

Here  we  are,  then,  with  our  motive  and  with  the  prob- 
lem before  us  of  repeating  it  with  modifications  suflficient 
to  lend  it  a  new  interest,  but  not  radical  enough  to  hide  it3 
identity. 

If  we  are  making  our  music  for  several  voices  or  instru- 
ments, or  for  several  parts  all  played  on  one  instrument 
like  the  organ  or  the  piano,  we  can  let  these  different 
voices  or  parts  sound  the  motive  in  succession.     If,  while 


8 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


the  new  voice  takes  the  motive,  the  voice  previously  brought 
in  goes  on  with  something  new,  then  we  shall  have  a  very- 
agreeable  mingling  of  unity  and  variety.  This  is  the 
method  used  in  all  canons,  fugues,  inventions,  and  so  on, 
and  in  vocal  rounds.  For  an  example,  take  the  round 
called  "  Three  Blind  Mice  "     (see  Figure  I). 

FIGURE  I. 
"THREE  BLIND  MICE." 


S 


^^^ 


*  -(S<- 

Three    blind       mice. 


three    blind      micCi 


See     how     they     run. 


rf — r- 

N 

f-r~-^ — 

^           K 

s 

/ 

N 

[S 

N       ^  * 

1*        d        J        m        *  • 

K 

-4^ — • 

^-T- 

-T^-.    .. 

• b— 

J        •        •        • 

-•^     i^- 

-J^- 

«j 

— * 0-^ — 

1 — ^ — 

— ^ 3 ^ 

see 

how    they  run.       They    all      ran    af  • 

ter   the  farm  • 

er's  wife.  Who 

n      '^^ 

„               ~-^                          K                     ..                      1^ 

u 

1          r         1 

>         ^ 

N            N     ■ 

/       J 

P             0             d             J             d             P  • 

IS 

1 

fc\     1 

1                1                               ^                    -1 

•          m 

J            J 

\sJ          [j 

WW                              T                               V 

f            • 

if     ^ 

v^ 

cut 


i 


off         their      tails    with 

N — N — ^ 


carv     -    ing    knife.      Did      you 


^ 


I 


W^ 


-J — J    ;.   f 

-a E 


ev  •  er      see   such     a    sight     in    your    hfe      as     three     blind     mice. 

One  person,  A,  begins  this  melody  alone,  and  sings  it 
through.  When  he  has  reached  the  third  measure,  B 
strikes  in  at  the  beginning.  WTien  B  in  his  turn  has  reached 
the  third  measure  (A  being  now  at  the  fifth),  C  comes  in 
in  the  same  way.  In  a  word,  the  three  people  sing  the 
same  tune  in  rotation  (whence  the  name,  "round  ").  And 
the  tune,  of  course,  is  so  contrived  that  all  its  different 
sections,    sounded    simultaneously   by   the   various    voices. 


ELEMENTS  OF  MUSICAL    FORM  9 

merge  in  harmony.  This  kind  of  literal  repetition  by  one 
part  of  what  another  has  just  done  is  called  "imitation," 
and  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  all  that  great  department 
of  music  known  as  the  "polyphonic,"  or  many- voiced. 

But  now,  notice  another  kind  of  repetition  in  this  little 
tune.  Measures  3  and  4  practically  repeat,  though  at  a 
different  place  in  the  scale,  the  three-note  motive  of  meas- 
ures 1  and  2.  (In  order  to  conform  to  the  words,  the 
second  note  is  now  divided  into  two,  but  this  is  an  unim- 
portant alteration.)  The  naturalness  of  this  kind  of 
repetition  is  obvious.  Having  begun  with  our  motive  in 
one  place,  it  easily  occurs  to  us  to  go  on  by  repeating  it, 
in  the  same  voice,  hut  higher  or  lotver  in  pitch  than  at  first. 
The  mere  fact  that  it  is  higher  or  lower  gives  it  the  agreeable 
novelty  we  desire,  yet  it  remains  perfectly  recognizable. 
We  may  call  this  sort  of  repetition,  which,  like  "imitation," 
is  of  the  greatest  utility  to  the  composer,  "transposition," 
to  indicate  that  the  motive  is  shifted  to  a  new  place  or 
pitch. 

But  suppose  we  do  not  wish  either  to  imitate  or  to  trans- 
pose our  motive,  is  there  any  other  way  in  which  we  can 
effectively  repeat  it  ?  Yes :  —  we  can  follow  its  first  appear- 
ance with  something  else,  entirely  different,  and  after  this 
interval  of  contrast,  come  back  again  and  restate  our  motive 
just  as  it  was  at  first.  Looking  at  "Three  Blind  Mice" 
again,  we  see  that  this  device,  as  well  as  the  other  two,  is 
used  there.  After  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  measures, 
which  contain  the  contrast,  the  eighth  measure  returns 
literally  to  the  original  motive  of  three  notes,  thus  rounding 


10  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

out  and  completing  the  tune.  This  third  kind  of  repeti- 
tion, which  may  be  called  "restatement  after  contrast," 
or  simply  "restatement,"  is  also  widely  in  use  in  all  kinds 
of  music.  A  most  familiar  instance  occurs  in  "  Way  Down 
upon  the  Suwanee  River." 

Let  us  keep  distinctly  in  mind,  in  all  our  study,  these 
three  modes  of  repetition,  which  are  of  radical  importance 
to  musical  design:  1st,  the  imitation  of  a  motive  in  a  different 
"voice"  or  "part";  2d,  the  transposition  of  a  motive,  in 
the  same  voice,  to  a  higher  or  lower  place  in  the  scale; 
3d,  the  restatement  of  a  motive  already  once  stated,  after 
an  intervening  contrast.  We  shall  constantly  see  these 
kinds  of  repetition  —  imitation,  transposition,  and  restate- 
ment —  used  by  the  great  composers  to  give  their  music 
that  unity  in  variety,  that  variety  in  unity,  without  which 
music  can  be  neither  intelligible  nor  beautiful. 

V.     The  First  Steps  as  Revealed  by  History. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  these  ways  of  varying 
musical  motives  without  destroying  their  identity  were 
quickly  found  out  by  musicians.  On  the  contrary,  it  took 
centuries,  literally  centuries,  to  discover  these  devices  that 
seem  to  us  so  simple.  All  savage  races  are  musically  like 
children;  they  cannot  keep  more  than  one  or  two  short  bits 
of  tune  in  mind  at  the  same  time,  and  these  they  simply 
repeat  monotonously.  The  first  two  examples  in  Figure  II, 
taken  from  Sir  Hubert  Parry's  "The  Evolution  of  the  Art 
of  Music,"  give  an  idea  of  the  first  stage  of  the  savage 
musician. 


ELEMENTS   OF    MUSICAL    FORM 


11 


FIGURE  n. 
TUNES  OF  PRIMITIVE  SAVAGES. 


feg^Z^pjlJ^J^^iSgE^I^^^^ 


etc 


^ 


F    •  tf»— » 


"^ 


^ 


:i=p: 


% 


etc 


n  ii.n  II  n 


^5^ 


p=p: 


jtjL 


TJtA 


zatjt 


¥1=^ 


P==*=i= 


etc 


4=^ 


i 


N.B. 


N.B. 


^^ 


=#=P= 


i 


N.B. 


N.B. 


-^0^— 


etc 


P^ 


The  first  is  from  Australia,  the  second  from  Tongata- 
boo.  Both  are  made  of  a  single  motive  endlessly  repeated 
without  relief. 

In  a  slightly  higher  stage,  two  motives  are  used,  but  with 
little  more  skill.  Number  3,  in  Figure  II,  is  an  example. 
Then  come  tunes  in  which  one  or  more  motives,  repeated 
literally,  are  still  the  main  feature  of  the  design,  but  in  which 
a  certain  amount  of  variety  is  introduced  between  the 
repetitions  (see  Number  4,  in  Figure  II,  a  Russian  tune). 
Here  the  little  characteristic  figure  of  four  short  notes  and  a 
long,  marked  N.B.,  is  agreeably  relieved  by  other  material. 


12 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


VI.    A  Spanish  Folk-Song. 

From  such  primitive  music  as  this  to  the  beautiful 
"folk-song"  of  the  modern  nations  is  a  long  step  indeed. 
Even  in  the  simplest  real  folk-songs,  the  means  of  varied 
repetition  of  ideas  that  we  have  been  discussing  are  used 
with  an  ingenuity  which  places  them  on  an  infinitely  higher 
level  than  these  primitive  efforts  of  savages.  It  is  true  that 
in  folk-songs,  which  were  sung  by  a  single  voice  instead  of  a 
group  of  voices,  the  device  of  "imitation  "  was  used  hardly 
at  all :  —  that  is  available  only  where  there  are  several 
different  voices  to  imitate  one  another.  But  in  order  to  see 
what  good  use  was  made  of  "transposition  "  and  "restate- 
ment "  we  need  take  only  a  single  example,  from  Galicia 
in  Spain  (see  Figure  III).      Let  us  examine  this  tune  in  some 

FIGURE  m. 


FOLK-SONG. 

2 


From  Galicia  in  Spain. 


^t—0~^ 


m 


3: 


^3E^t 


f-^-^ 


G>-^ 


i=i=3= 


3Mt* 


-5^-^ 


^ 


P==P=^*- 


detail,  as  a  preparation  for  a  further  study  of  folk-songs  in 
a  later  article. 

The   tune,   in   spite   of   its   impression   of   considerable 
variety,  is  founded  entirely  on  two  motives  — 


^^ 


t 


ELEMENTS   OF   MUSICAL    FORM  13 


i 


W- 


^ 


In  the  sixth  and  seventh  measures,  (1)  is  so  altered  and 
transposed  that  it  ends  on  D  instead  of  on  C,  and  in  the 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  measures  (2)  is  transposed  so  as  to 
end  on  G  instead  of  on  C.  By  these  transpositions  the 
important  element  of  contrast  is  introduced,  and  when  there- 
fore we  have,  at  the  end,  the  two  motives  given  again  almost 
exactly  as  to  first,  we  get,  by  this  restatement  after  contrast, 
a  delightful  sense  of  unity  and  completeness.  The  means 
here  are  wonderfully  simple,  but  the  effect  is  truly  artistic. 

VII.    Balance  of  Phrases. 

An  important  principle  of  musical  design  is  introduced 
to  our  notice  by  this  little  melody.  It  will  be  observed  that 
it  divides  itself  into  three  equal  parts:  the  statement,  meas- 
ures 1-5;  the  contrast,  measures  6-10;  and  the  restatement, 
measures  11-15.  (We  may  represent  these  by  the  letters 
A,  B,  and  A.)  Now  these  three  parts,  being  of  equal  length 
and  similar  material,  balance  each  other  just  as  lines  in 
poetry  do.  One  makes  us  expect  another,  which,  when  it 
comes,  fulfills  our  expectation.  Thus  we  get  the  impression 
of  regularity,  order,  symmetry.  This  element  of  symme- 
try, or  the  balancing  of  one  phrase  of  melody  by  another, 
like  the  balancing  of  one  line  of  poetry  by  another,  as  in  the 
verses 

"  The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me." 


14  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

is  a  most  important  one,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  in  all  modern 
music. 

This  balance  of  one  large  section  of  a  melody  by  another 
is  often  referred  to  by  the  term  "  rhythm,"  owing  to  its  anal- 
ogy with  "rhythm"  in  architecture  (in  the  symmetry,  for 
example,  of  two  halves  of  a  building).  But  it  is  simpler  to 
keep  the  word  rhythm,  in  music,  to  mean  rather  a  charac- 
teristic combination  of  tones,  as  regards  their  relative  length 
and  accent,  as,  "the  rhythm  of  the  first  motive  in  Bee- 
hoven's'  Fifth  Symphony"  (see  motive  quoted  on  page 
5).  In  the  present  articles  the  word  will  be  used  in  this 
latter  sense. 

VIII.    Summary. 

In  this  chapter  we  have  seen  how  music,  in  spite  of  its 
subtle,  intangible  nature,  has  certain  definite  features  called 
"motives,"  which  we  can  learn  to  recognize  and  follow  by 
noticing  the  length,  accent,  metri(!al  arrangement,  and 
movement  "up"  or  "down,"  of  the  tones  of  which  they 
are  composed. 

We  have  seen  that  these  primary  motives  are  worked  up 
into  complete  pieces  of  music  by  being  repeated  with  such 
alterations  as  serve  to  vary  them  pleasantly  without  disguis- 
ing them  beyond  recognition.  The  chief  kinds  of  modified 
repetition  we  have  noticed  are  "imitation,"  "transposition," 
and  "restatement  after  contrast."  All  of  these  we  have  seen 
illustrated  in  "Three  Blind  Mice." 

We  have  remarked  how  very  gradually  musicians  got 
away  from  monotonous  harping  on  their  ideas  by  using  these 


ELEMENTS    OF    MUSICAL    FORM  15 

rte\aces.  In  connection  with  the  Spanish  folk-song,  we  have 
noted  that,  although  imitation  was  not  available,  transpo- 
sition  and  restatement  were  most  effectively  used. 

Finally,  we  have  seen  ttiat  music,  like  poetry,  has  its 
larger  balance  of  phrases,  by  which  whole  parts  of  a  melody 
are  set  off  against  one  another  and  made  to  balance,  just  as 
Unes  do  in  verse. 

In  succeeding  chapters  we  shall  trace  out  all  these 
principles  in  more  detail. 

Suggestions   for  Collateral  Reading. 

Parry  :  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,"  Chapters 
I  and  II ;  Dickinson :  "  The  Study  of  the  History  of 
Music"  Chapter  I ;  Grove:  ''Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Musicians"  article  ''Form" 


CHAPTER  II. 

FOLK-SONGS. 

In  the  first  chapter  we  have  traced  the  evolution  of  the 
formal  element  in  music,  the  element  through  which  it 
gradually  attained  coherence.  We  have  seen  that  this  ele- 
ment is  an  expression  of  that  common  sense  which  rules  in 
all  things;  that  the  various  expedients  adopted  in  music  as 
means  of  keeping  the  central  idea  before  the  listener,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  providing  him  with  sufficient  variety  to 
retain  his  interest,  are  dictated  by  that  sense  of  fitness  that 
operates  everywhere  in  life.  And  these  simple  formal  prin- 
ciples, so  conceived,  will  be  found  to  underlie  the  larger 
musical  forms  that  will  engage  our  attention  in  succeeding 
chapters. 

Let  us  always  keep  in  mind  that,  while  the  psychological 
effect  of  music  remains  a  considerable  mystery,  and  the 
appreciation  of  great  music  nmst  be  a  personal  and  indivi- 
dual act  involving  a  certain  receptivity  and  sensitiveness  to 
musical  impressions,  yet  the  perception  of  the  logic  or  sense 
in  a  piece  of  music  is  a  long  step  towards  understanding  it, 
and  one  of  the  best  means  of  cultivating  that  receptivity  and 
sensitiveness. 

Folk-songs  have  been  described  by  an  eminent  writer^ 
as  **  the  first  essays  made  by  man  in  distributing  his  notes 

*  Sir  Hubert  Parry  in  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music" 
16 


FOLK-SONGS  17 

so  as  to  express  his  feelings  in  terms  of  design.'*  We  shall 
shortly  examine  some  typical  folk-songs  in  order  to  see  how 
this  design  gradually  became  larger  and  more  various,  and 
how,  through  this  process,  the  foundations  were  laid  for  the 
masterpieces  of  modern  instrumental  music.  We  shall  see 
that  this  advance  has  accompanied  an  advance  in  civiliza- 
tion; that  as  men's  lives  have  become  better  ordered,  as 
higher  standards  of  living  and  thinking  have  appeared,  the 
sense  of  beauty  has  grown  until,  finally,  this  steady  progress 
has  resulted  in  the  creation  of  certain  permanent  types.  It 
must  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  these  primitive  types 
are  largely  the  result  of  instinctive  effort,  and  not  of  con- 
scious musical  knowledge.  The  science  of  music,  as  we 
know  it,  did  not  exist  when  these  songs  were  written. 

I.    F01.K-S0NGS  AND  Art  Songs. 

In  order  to  distinguish  between  Folk-songs  and  songs 
like  those  of  Schubert  and  Schumann,  musicians  call  the 
latter  "Art"  songs.  The  folk-song  is  a  naive  product, 
springing  almost  unconsciously  from  the  hearts  of  simple 
people,  and  not  intended  to  convey  any  such  definite 
expression  of  the  meaning  of  the  words  as  is  conveyed  in 
modern  songs.  While  there  are  specimens  ^  of  the  art  song 
that  closely  approach  the  simplicity  and  beauty  of  the  folk- 
song, the  art  song  in  general  is  not  only  of  wider  range  and 
of  wider  application  to  men's  thoughts  and  feelings,  but 
it  also  has,  as  an  integral  part  of  it,  an  accompaniment  of 
which  the  folk-song,  in  its  pure  state,  is  entirely  devoid. 

*  Such  as  Schubert's  "Haiden-Rosleiu' 


18 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


A  further  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  folk-song 
IS  that  it  is  often  composed  in  one  of  the  old  ecclesiastical 
"modes." 

These  modes  were  old  forms  of  the  scale  that  existed 
before  our  modern  harmonic  system  came  into  use.  The 
following  English  folk-song,  called  "Salisbury  Plain,"  is 
in  the  "Aeolian"  mode. 

FIGURE  IV 


?^J  Jl  I  nj^ 


^^ 


m 


g^S 


3 


3=i* 


:J.-*^* 


^=m=fif^m. 


IE 


j^fi^^st^r^^ 


-Nn^ 


I 


t 


m 


m 


'm^-x^ 


^-It 


This  song  is  written  in  the  scale  represented  by  the 
white  keys  of  a  pianoforte  beginning  on  A,  and  the  peculiarly 
quaint  effect  of  it  is  due  to  the  unusual  intervals  of  that 
scale  as  compared  with  our  common  scale  forms.  There 
are  various  modes  ^  called  "Phrygian,"  "Dorian,"  etc., 
each  having  its  own  peculiar  quality.  This  quaintness  and 
characteristic  quality  to  be  observed  in  modal  folk-songs 
almost  entirely  disappears  when  an  accompaniment  of 
modern  harmony  is  added,  as  is  often  done. 


^  The  reader  will  find  an  account  of  these  modes  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music 
under  "Modes,  Ecclesiastical  " 


FOLK-SONGS  19 

Folk-songs  occupied  a  much  more  important  place 
in  the  lives  of  the  people  who  used  them  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  When  we  consider  that  at  the  time  the  earliest 
of  them  were  written  few  people  could  read  or  write,  that 
books  were  printed  in  Latin,  and  that  there  were  no  news- 
papers, railways,  or  telegraphs,  we  can  understand  how 
large  a  part  these  old  songs  played  in  the  scheme  of  life. 
The  strolling  singer  was  the  newspaper  of  the  time. 
Furthermore,  the  general  illiteracy  of  the  people  made  of 
the  folk-song  a  natural  vent  for  their  feelings.  With  a 
limited  vocabulary  at  their  disposal,  it  was  natural  that  they 
should  use  the  song  as  a  medium  of  expression  for  their 
joys  and  sorrows.  Gesture  was  also  part  of  their  language, 
and  in  a  modified  way,  as  a  means  of  expression,  may  be 
said  to  have  performed  something  of  the  function  of  song. 
Many  of  the  oldest  melodies  existed  as  an  adjunct  to  danc- 
ing and  religious  ceremonials,  and  were,  therefore,  to  some 
extent  utilitarian.  But  so  intimate  was  their  relation  to  the 
ideas  and  feelings  of  the  people  who  used  them  that,  in 
spite  of  the  crudeness  and  simplicity  of  the  medium  em- 
ployed, the  songs  of  the  various  nations  are  entirely  distinct 
from  each  other,  and  to  a  remarkable  degree  express  the 
characteristics  of  the  people  who  produced  them. 

The  songs  used  with  this  chapter  are  chosen  chiefly  to 
illustrate  the  various  methods  (already  described)  of  attain- 
ing variety  and  unity  in  rnusic.  If  little  space  is  devoted 
here  to  other  considerations,  the  reader  must  bear  in  mind 
that  our  purpose  is  to  lead  him  finally  to  as  complete  an 
appreciation  as  possible  of  the  masterpieces  of  instrumen- 


20 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


tal  music,  and  that  this  appreciation  must  begin  with  a 
perception  of  the  relationships  between  the  various  parts 
of  a  primitive  piece  of  music. 

II.    An  English  Folk-Song. 

In  Figure  V  is  shown  the  old  Enghsh  song  "Polly  Oliver." ' 

FIGURE  V. 
A 


± 


^r- 


W^^^^^m 


^ 


_+_^. 


s 


^^F=f= 


_,==p: 


^ 


:J=b^ 


r~ 


i^^^^^^^ 


^ 


^ 


5 


S 


i 


This  is  a  traditional  song  handed  down  without  any 
record  of  its  origin,  from  generation  to  generation.  Its 
unknown  composer  has  managed  very  deftly  to  make  it 
hang  together.  A  good  deal  is  made,  in  particular,  of  the 
characteristic  little  motive  of  three  notes  which  first  occurs 
at  the  beginning  of  the  third  measure.^  In  the  very  next 
measure,  the  fourth,  this  is  "  transposed  "  to  a  lower  posi- 
tion.    Going  on,  we  find  it  coming  in  again,  most  effectively, 

^  In  Hadow's  "Songs  of  the  British  Islands"  (Curwen  &,  O).,  London). 
'  The  first  partial  measure  is  counted  as  one. 


FOLK-SONGS  21 

in  measure  7,  this  time  transposed  upwards;  and  it  occurs 
again  twice  at  the  end  of  the  melody.  Thus  a  certain 
unity  is  given  to  the  entire  tune.  Again,  the  device  of 
repetition  after  contrast  is  well  used.  After  measures  1-9, 
which  state  the  main  idea  of  the  melody,  measures  9-13 
come  in  with  a  pronounced  contrast;  but  this  is  immediately 
followed  up,  in  measures  13-17,  by  a  literal  repetition  of 
the  first  four  measures,  which  serves  to  roUnd  out  and 
satisfactorily  complete  the  whole.  We  thus  see  illustrated 
once  more  the  scheme  of  form  which,  in  the  last  chapter, 
we  denoted  by  the  letters  A-B-A. 

This  song  presents  a  further  element  of  form  by  means 
of  which  much  variety  is  imparted  to  music. 

III.    Key  and  Modulation. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  first  phrase  of  "  Polly  Oliver  " 
(measures  1-5)  moves  about  the  tone  E-flat  and  ends  upon 
it  with  the  effect  of  coming  to  rest,  and  that  the  second 
phrase  (measures  5-9)  similarly  moves  about  and  comes 
to  rest  on  the  tone  B-flat.  The  last  phrase  (13-17),  hke 
the  first,  moves  about  E-flat.  This  moving  about  a  certain 
tone,  which  is,  so  to  speak,  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
whole  phrase,  is  called  by  musicians  "being  in  the  key  of" 
that  tone;  and  when  the  center  of  gravity  changes,  musicians 
say  that  the  piece  "modulates"  from  one  key  to  another. 
Thus,  this  first  phrase  is  in  the  key  of  E-flat,  the  second 
modulates  to  the  key  of  B-flat,  and  the  song  later  modulates 
back  again  to  the  key  of  E-flat.  Here  we  have  another 
very  important   principle   in   modern   music,  the    principle 


i6  93  4r 


22  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

of  "key"  or  "tonality," — important  because  it  makes 
possible  a  great  deal  of  variety  that  still  does  not  interfere 
with  unity.  By  putting  the  first  part  of  a  piece  in  one  key, 
the  second  part  in  another,  and  finally  the  last  part  in  the 
original  key,  we  can  get  much  diversity  of  effect,  and  at  the 
same  time  end  with  the  same  impression  with  which  we 
began.  We  shall  only  gradually  appreciate  the  immense 
value  to  the  musician  of  this  arrangement  of  keys. 

A  further  element  of  form  is  found  in  "Polly  Oliver," 
namely,  the  balance  of  phrases.  This  balance  of  phrases 
one  against  another  is  derived  ultimately  from  the  timed 
motions  of  the  body  in  dancing,  or  from  the  meter  of  the  four 
line  verse  to  which  the  music  was  sung.  And  this  balance  of 
phrases,  derived  from  these  elemental  sources,  still  domi- 
nates in  the  melodies  of  the  great  masters,  although  it  is 
managed  with  constantly  increasing  freedom  and  elasticity, 
so  that  we  find  in  modern  music  little  of  that  sing-song 
mechanical  regularity  which  we  may  note  in  most  folk-songs 
and  dances. 

rV.    Barbara  Allen. 

Let  us  now  examine  another  old  English  song,  "Barbara 
Allen." 

FIGURE  VI. 


1^ 


-N — ^— — ^-P-^ 


Zi=Mt 


^ — ^^ ^ — ■ 


-.^=t- 


-*     I       I      -r — 9- 


-j^=^=*=H 


In  Scar -let  Town  where  I  was  born,  There  was  a    fair  maid  dwelHn',      Made 


:^ 


r*- 


H 


ev'  -  ry  youth      cry    "well-a-day,"  Her  name  was  Barbara       Allen. 


FOLK-SONGS  23 

All  in  the  merrj'  month  of  ^lay, 

When  green  buds  they  were  swellin', 
Young  Jemmy  Grove  on  his  death  bed  lay 
For  love  of  Barbara  Allen. 

•  Then  slowly,  slowly  she  came  up. 

And  slowly  she  came  nigh  him. 
And  all  she  said  when  there  she  came: 
"Young  man,  I  think  you're  dying." 

When  he  was  dead,  and  laid  in  grave. 

Her  heart  was  struck  with  sorrow. 
"O  mother,  mother!  —  make  my  bed. 

For  I  shall  die  to-morrow!" 

She,  on  her  death  bed  as  she  lay, 

Begg'd  to  be  buried  by  him. 
And  sore  repented  of  the  day 

That  she  did  e'er  deny  him. 

"Farewell!"  she  said,  "ye  maidens  all. 

And  shun  the  fault  I  fell  in. 
Henceforth  take  warning  by  the  fall 

Of  cruel  Barbara  Allen." 

This  also  is  a  traditional  song.  The  words  celebrate 
the  emotion  of  unrequited  love,  a  favorite  subject  with  the 
old  ballad  writers.  In  the  music,  we  shall  find  a  further 
illustration  of  the  use  of  the  devices  already  referred  to. 

We  note  first  of  all  that  there  is  throughout  the  melody  a 
constant  use  of  one  rhythmic  motive.  This  figure  appears 
in  the  first  four  notes  of  the  song,  and  is  found  at  the  begin- 
ning of  every  other  measure  save  the  fifth  and  the  last. 
While  these  transpositions  are  not  so  literal  as  is  that  at  the 
beginning  of  "  Polly  Oliver,"  they  are  nevertheless  sufficiently 
close  to  serve  the  purpose  of  preserving  unity  while  still  pro- 
viding variety.  The  tune  is  held  together  by  this  insistence 
on  the  motive;  there  is  considerable  variety  in  the  melody 


24  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

of  the  various  phrases,  but  through  it  all  runs  this  persistent 
rhythm. 

Although  "Barbara  Allen"  does  not,  strictly  speaking, 
contain  a  modulation,  since  there  is  in  the  melody  no  note 
foreign  to  the  key  in  which  the  song  is  written,  yet  the  first 
and  last  phrases  center  round  D,  the  key-note,  while  the 
second  phrase  (to  the  words  "There  was  a  fair  maid 
dwellin'")  centers  round  and  comes  to  rest  on  A,  thus  pro- 
ducing the  effect  of  a  half  pause,  as  if  punctuated  with  a 
semicolon. 

A  very  important  point  should  be  noted  in  reference  to 
these  half  pauses  or  modulations  in  a  melody,  namely,  that 
they  usually  occur  on  the  fifth  note  of  the  scale  of  the  original 
key,  called  by  musicians  the  "dominant."  In  the  three 
songs  we  have  considered  thus  far  the  second  phrase  has  so 
ended.  This  modulation  to  the  dominant  is  the  most  com- 
mon one  in  music,  and  we  shall  often  have  occasion  to  refer 
to  it  in  later  chapters. 

Finally,  a  comparison  of  the  third  phrase  of  the  music  — • 
"there  was  a  fair  maid  dwellin'"  —  with  the  last  —  "her 
name  was  Barbara  Allen"  —  will  reveal  a  considerable 
similarity  in  both  rhythm  and  melodic  contour  or  curve. 
By  means  of  this  similarity,  and  by  the  return,  in  the  last 
phrase,  to  the  original  key,  our  sense  of  proportion  is  satis- 
fied and  a  certain  logic  is  imparted  to  the  tune.  It  should 
also  be  noticed  that  the  melody  is  a  perfect  example  of  that 
balance  of  phrases  already  referred  to,  the  two  halves  (1-5 
and  5-9)  being  of  precisely  the  same  length. 


FOLK-SONGS  26 

V.     National  Characteristics  ix  Folk-Songs. 

"Barbara  Allen"  is  like  many  other  English  tunes  in 
being  straightforward,  positive,  and,  in  a  measure,  unro- 
mantic.  It  lacks  the  soft,  undulating,  and  poetic  element  to 
be  observed  in  the  Spanish  folk-song  (see  Chapter  I),  but 
has  a  vigor  and  somewhat  matter-of-fact  quality  charac- 
teristic of  the  race  that  produced  it.  The  story  was  evi- 
dently popular  in  the  olden  time,  as  many  versions  of  it 
with  different  music  have  been  found  all  over  England.  All 
the  important  events  of  the  times  were  celebrated  in  song. 
There  were,  for  example,  many  songs  about  Napoleon  and 
the  danger  of  an  invasion  of  England,  such  as  "Boney's 
Lamentation."  Songs  were  written  about  political  affairs 
and  about  religion,  and  there  were  many  dealing  with  popu- 
lar characters  such  as  Robin  Hood.  Celebrated  criminals 
became  the  subjects  of  songs,  while  poaching  and  other  law- 
less acts  committed  by  the  peasants  —  which  in  those  days 
were  punished  with  the  greatest  severity  —  were  frequently 
used  as  the  basis  for  the  strolling  singers'  ballads.  Such 
titles  as  "Here's  adieu  to  all  Judges  and  Juries,"  "The 
Gallant  Poachers,"  and  "Botany  Bay"  are  frequently  to 
be  found. 

From  a  perusal  of  a  large  number  of  the  old  songs  one 
gathers  a  quite  comprehensive  idea  of  the  ways  of  life  and 
the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  people  of  "Merrie  Eng- 
land." A  kind  of  rude  philosophy  seems  to  have  evolved 
itself  out  of  the  mass  of  common  sentiment.  And  the  verses, 
rude  as  they  are,  have  a  characteristic  directness  and  vigor 
that  gives  them  a  value  of  their  own. 


26  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

Plain,  definite  narrative  characterises  most  of  the  Eng- 
lish songs.  The  name  of  the  hero  and  heroine  are  usually 
given  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  as  are  all  the  other  details 
of  the  story.  One  old  English  song,  for  example,  begins  as 
follows : 

"Twas  the  eighteenth  of  August, 
The  eighth  month  of  the  year." 

while  anothier  is  entitled: 

"The  Three  Butchers;  or,  Gibson,  Wilson,  and  Johnson." 

Still  another  begins: 

"Eli  Sykes,  in  the  town  of  Batley, 
Killed  his  sweetheart,  Hannah  Brooke." 

This  quality  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  more  romantic 
and  poetic  element  to  be  found  in  the  songs  of  many  Euro- 
pean nations.  This  energetic  and  straightforward  quality 
in  old  English  melodies  does  not  prevent  them  from  being 
beautiful;  they  are  true  to  human  nature  and  unspoiled  by 
sophistry. 

VI.    An  Irish  Folk-Song. 

Our  next  illustration  is  an  Irish  song  called  "The  Flight 
of  the  Earls,"  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  melodies.  (See 
Figure  Vn.) 

In  this  illustration  the  curved  lines  represent 
the  phrases  and  correspond  to  the  lines  of  the  poem, 
while  the  brackets  show  the  larger  formal  structure  of 
the  melody,  A  being  the  statement,  or  clause  of  assertion, 
B  the  clause  of  contrast,  and  A  the  restatement.  A  mere 
glance  at  this  music  will  show  how  certain  phrases  are  used 


FOLK-SONGS 


27 


FIGURE  Vn. 
A 


^ 


m 


^=^ 


-»^- 


-^ 


^^ 


m 


H ^ ^^ ^ 


-ff\9 fN — -f -i> ^*iw ^?» F-^- — ^ — F •- 


^=t 


e 


?=n: 


-^ — ^ 


::•— t^ 


^B£ 


l=> 


Si^^EE^ 


i 


5 


3tlit 


5 


:t=i: 


throughout  to  hold  the  melody  together.  The  first  and 
second  measures/  for  example,  contain  a  phrase  of  which 
one  part  or  the  other  will  be  found  in  almost  every  measure 
of  the  song.  The  first  half  of  the  song  ends  at  9  with  a 
modulation  to  the  fifth  above,  or  dominant,  while  the  "re- 
statement after  contrast"  (beginning  on  the  last  note  of 
measure  13)  is  quite  clear. 

Certain  details  may  be  pointed  out  for  the  benefit  of  the 
student.  The  first  phrase,  ending  on  the  note  D  (5),  gives 
a  sense  of  being  poised  for  a  moment  before  proceeding  to 
the  next  note,  D  not  being  a  point  of  rest  such  as  is  supplied 
by  the  C  with  which  the  second  phrase  ends  —  at  9.  The 
same  device  is  used  at  the  end  of  the  third  phrase  (13). 
The  clause  of  contrast  (9-13),  while  based  on  the  rhythm 


^  The  partial  measure  at  the  beginning  is  counted  as  one. 


28 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


of  the  motive  of  three  notes  at  the  beginning  of  the  song, 
is  distinguished  from  either  of  the  other  two  parts  by  the 
absence  of  the  characteristic  sixteenth-note  figure  of  measure 
two. 

This  song  justifies  all  that  we  have  said  about  the  poetic 
beauty  of  folk-songs.  Within  its  short  compass  are  con- 
tained elements  of  perfection  that  may  well  astonish  tliose 
who  look  on  folk-songs  as  immaterial  to  the  development 
of  the  art  of  music.  For  this  melody  is  as  complete  and 
perfect  an  expression  of  that  natural  idealism  that  seems 
to  have  animated  human  beings  from  the  earliest  times  as 
is  the  present  day  music  of  our  own  ideals. 

VII.    A  German  Folk-Song. 

The  next  illustration  is  a  well  known  German  folk- 
song called  "  Sister  Fair." 

FIGURE  Vm. 


i 


5SE^ 


^ 


p^ 


J^^^Efi 


-J^ m — ^      f    •    ^    .    »^    1 # ^—  -?—•—» a— 

i>  J  r  '  ^^F=t^j^^r  '  :^  XT  r 

?±^=5= 


t=^ 


M 


This  melody  is  one  of  great  beauty  and  tenderness. 
Like  many  other  German  folk-songs,  it  is  full  of  quiet 
sentiment,    not   over-strained,    but   sweet   and    w4iolesome< 


FOLK-SONGS  29 

It  contains  certain  formal  elements  with  which  we  are 
already  familiar:  (1)  "Repetition,"  between  the  first  motive 
in  measures  1  and  2,  between  measures  5-Q  and  7-8,  and 
between  measures  3-4  and  11-12;  (2)  "transposition," 
where  the  motive  in  measure  9  is  inverted  in  measure  10 
(this  is  an  imitation  of  rhythm  but  not  of  melody);  (3) 
"restatement  after  contrast,"  the  last  four  measures  being, 
in  effect,  a  repetition  of  the  first  four  with  the  first  motive 
from  measure  9  inverted;  (4)  "modulation,"  the  first 
phrase  being  in  A-minor,  the  second  in  C-major,  and  the 
last  in  x\-minor  again.  This  is  a  particularly  clear  example 
of  a  modulation,  as  the  three  phrases  distinctly  centre 
round  their  respective  key-notes,  or  tonal  centres.  It 
should  be  noted  that  the  modulation  is  not  to  the  fifth 
above  the  key-note,  as  in  most  of  the  other  examples,  but  to 
the  third  above.   This  is  common  in  songs  in  the  minor  key. 

Quite  a  distinct  charm  is  imparted  to  the  first  phrase 
of  this  melody  by  the  use  at  the  end  of  measure  2  of  the 
little  rhythmic  figure  that  has  already  appeared  at  the 
beginning  of  the  first  and  second  measures.  There  is  an 
unexpected  charm  in  this  shifting  of  a  motive  from  one  part 
of  a  measure  to  another.  We  shall  see  this  device  of  musi- 
cal construction  in  many  of  the  larger  works  that  are  dealt 
with  in  later  chapters. 

There  are  a  great  many  beautiful  German  folk- 
songs which  would  be  well  worth  study  here  did  space 
permit.  The  student  is  referred  to  such  collections  as 
Reimann's  "Das  Deutsche  Lied,"  where  the  best  of  them 
will  be  found- 


30  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

VIII.    Summary. 

In  this  brief  study  of  folk-songs  we  have  noted  that 
the  stream  of  pure  native  melody  was  independent  of  the 
art-song  and  followed  its  own  natural  channel,  but  that,  in 
spite  of  its  limitation,  it  presents  to  us  some  well  developed 
formal  types. 

We  have  seen  how  important  a  part  modulation  plays 
in  the  plan  of  a  piece  of  music,  and  how,  by  means  of  a 
change  of  key,  a  new  kind  of  variety  may  be  imparted  to 
a  melody. 

We  have  observed  how  closely  the  old  songs  reflect  the 
characteristics  of  the  people  who  produced  them,  and  how 
intimate  was  the  connection  between  the  songs  —  with  the 
verses  to  which  they  were  set  —  and  the  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings of  those  who  used  them. 

In  studying  the  German  folk-song  we  have  observed  a 
subtle  element  of  form,  namely,  the  shifting  of  a  motive 
from  one  part  of  a  measure  to  another. 

In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  take  up  the  study  of  simple 
polyphonic  pieces,  such  as  have  already  been  referred  to  in 
dealing  with  the  round,  "Three  Blind  Mice." 

Suggestions   for   Collateral    Reading. 

Parry :  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music," 
Chapter  III ;  Grovels  '*  Dictionary  of  Mv^ic  and 
Musicians i''^  articles  "  Song  "  and  "  Form.'* 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  POLYPHONIC  MUSIC  OF  BACH. 

We  have  seen  in  the  last  chapter  some  typical  examples 
of  folk-songs,  which  have  served  to  give  us  an  impression 
of  folk-music  in  general,  since  it  always  conforms,  in  all 
essentials,  to  the  type  they  illustrate.  Folk-music  is  gen- 
erally simple  and  unsophisticated  in  expression;  it  is  gene- 
rally cast  in  short  and  obvious  forms;  and  it  generally  con- 
sists of  a  single  melody,  either  sung  alone  or  accompanied, 
on  some  primitive  instrument,  by  a  few  of  the  commonest 
chords. 

The  prominence  given  to  a  single  melody  by  music  of  this 
type,  however,  makes  it  unsuitable  for  groups  of  different 
voices,  such  as  a  vocal  quartet  or  a  chorus;  and  there- 
fore when  musicians  began  to  pay  attention  to  music  in- 
tended for  church  use  they  had  to  work  out  a  different 
style,  in  which  several  parts,  sung  by  the  various  voices, 
could  be  strongly  individualized.  This  led  to  what  is 
called  the  "polyphonic,"  or  "many-voiced"  style.  Another 
reason  why  the  ecclesiastical  style  always  remained  unlike  the 
secular  was  that  the  learned  church  musicians  disdained 
any  use  of  those  methods  which  grew  up  in  connection  with 
folk-songs  and  dances,  considering  them  profane  or  vulgar. 
Had  they  been  willing  to  study  them,  they  might  have 
added  much  vitality  to  church  music  ;  but  they  maintained 
an  attitude   of  aloofness   and  of  contempt  for  the  popular 

music. 

81 


32 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF   MUSIC 
I.     What  is  "  Polyphony  ?  " 


The  peculiarity  of  the  polyphonic  style  is  that  that 
portion  of  the  music  which  accompanies  the  chief  melody 
is  no  longer  a  series  of  chords  as  in  folk-music,  but  a  tissue 
of  secondary  melodies,  like  the  chief  one,  and  hardly  less 
important.  (This  arises,  as  we  have  just  suggested,  from 
the  necessity  of  giving  each  of  the  four  voices  or  groups  of 
voices,  —  soprano,  alto,  tenor,  and  bass,  —  something 
individual  and  interesting  to  do.)  The  difference  between 
the  two  styles  is  apparent  even  to  the  eye,  on  the  printed 
page.  A  folk-song,  or  any  other  piece  in  "homophonic" 
or  "one-voiced"  style,  has  the  characteristic  appearance 
of  a  line  of  notes  on  top  (the  melody),  with  groups  of  other 
notes  hanging  down  from  it  here  and  there,  like  clothes 
from  a  clothes  line  (the  accompaniment).  A  Bach  fugue, 
in  print,  presents  the  appearance  of  four  (or  more)  inter- 
lacing lines  of  notes.    (See  Figure  IX.) 

FIGURE  IX. 

DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  "HOMOPHONIC"  AND  "POLYPHONIC" 

STYLE. 

(a)    Beginning  of  "  Polly  Oliver." 


m 


^ 


m^ 


^ 


While  the  dawn    on      the      moun  -  tain    was       mist  -    y       and     grey. 


^! 


^ 


=^;=t 


i 


## 


-?sh 


^ 
^ 


THE  POLYPHONIC  MUSIC  OF  BACH 


88 


(6)  Passage  from  Bach  Fugue  in  G-minor 
"  'Well-Tempered  Clavichord,"  Book  1. 


^S 


-=1 5^ 


Historically  speaking,  the  first  great  culmination  of  the 
polyphonic  style  is  found  in  the  ecclesiastical  choruses  of 
Palestrina  (1528-1594);  but  it  was  not  until  somewhat  later 
that  this  style  was  applied  to  instrumental  music.  In  the 
inventions,  canons,  preludes,  toccatas,  and  fugues  of 
Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (1685-1750),  we  get  the  first  great 
examples  of  polyphony  as  applied,  not  to  merely  ecclesias- 
tical music,  but  to  music  which  by  its  secular  character  and 
its  variety  of  emotional  expression  is  universal  in  scope. 

II.     An  Invention  by  Bach. 

Such  is  the  ingenuity  and  the  perfection  of  detail  in 
Bach's  works  in  the  polyphonic  style  that  a  life-time  might 
be  spent  in  studying  them.  They  have  that  delicacy  of 
inner  adjustment  more  usually  found  in  the  works  of  nature 
than  in  those  of  man;  their  melodies  grow  out  of  their  motive 
germs  as  plants  put  forth  leaves  and  flowers;  their  separate 
voices  fit  into  one  another  like  the  crystals  in  a  bit  of  quartz; 
and  the  whole  fabric  of  the  music  stands  on  its  elemental 
harmonies  as  solidly  as  the  mountains  on  their  granite  bases. 


34  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

We  can  hope  to  see  as  little  of  this  august  country  of  Bach'i 
mind  by  analyzing  a  few  pieces  as  a  man  may  see  of  the 
hills  and  moors  in  a  day's  excursion  —  but,  nevertheless,  a 
beginning  must  be  made. 

The  essential  features  of  this  music  may  be  seen  in  even 
so  simple  a  piece  as  the  Invention  in  F-major,  number  7,  in 
the  two-voiced  inventions,  though  it  is  written  for  only 
two  voices  and  is  but  thirty-four  measures  long. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  1. 
Bach:  Two-voice  Invention  No.  VIII. ,  in  F-Major. 

The  subject  or  theme  of  this  inveution  is  a  melody  of 
two  measures'  length,  first  given  out  by  the  soprano,  and 
consists  of  two  motives  or  characteristic  figures,  one  in 
eighth-notes,  staccato,  making  a  series  of  leaps,  thus: 

(a) 


#^=J?4^=P 


and  one  a  graceful  descending  run  in  sixteenth-notes,  thusf 


^i|zrZ!Xf=a'=g=p=g=p=^ 


Notice  how  charmingly  the  staccato  and  the  legato  are  con- 
trasted in  these  motives. 

The  entire  invention  is  made  out  of  this  subject  by  means 
of  those  methods  of  varied  repetition  discussed  in  Chapter 
1.,  especially  ''imitation"  and  ''transposition.**     For  ex- 


THE  POLYPHONIC  MUSIC   OF  BACH  35 

ample,  the  lower  voice,  which  we  will  call  the  bass,  "imi- 
tates," almost  exactly,  through  the  first  eleven  measures, 
what  the  soprano  says  a  measure  before  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  measure  12  the  bass  starts  the  ball  a-roUing  by 
giving  the  subject  (this  time  in  the  key  of  C),  and  the 
soprano  takes  its  turn  at  imitating.  Then,  from  measure 
29  to  the  end,  it  is  again  the  soprano  which  leads  and 
the  bass  which  imitates.  The  student  should  trace  out 
these  imitations  in  detail,  admiring  the  skill  with  which 
they  are  made  always  harmonious. 

There  are  many  instances  of  transposition  also,  most  of 
them  carried  out  so  systematically  that  they  form  what 
musicians  call  "sequences." 

A  sequence  is  a  series  of  transpositions  of  a  motive, 
shifting  it  in  pitch  either  upward  or  downward,  and  carried 
out  systematically  through  several  repetitions.  Examples: 
measures  4,  5,  and  6,  transposition  of  the  motive  in  soprano, 
three  repetitions;  measures  21,  22,  23,  transposition  of  mo- 
tives of  both  voices,  three  repetitions;  measures  24,  25, 
transposition  of  motives  of  both  voices,  two  repetitions. 
The  second  of  these  sequences  is  shown  in  Figure  X. 

It  will  be  noted  what  a  strong  sense  of  regular,  orderly 
progress  these  sequences  impart  to  the  melodies. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  that  the  same  general  scheme  of 
keys  is  embodied  in  this  invention  that  we  have  observed 
in  folk-songs:  i.  e.,  the  modulation  to  the  "dominant"  in 
the  middle  (measure  12),  and  the  return  at  the  end  to  the 
original  key.  This  divides  the  piece  into  two  unequal 
halves,  the  first  making  an  excursion  away  from  the  home 


36 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIG 


FIGURE  X. 
'  Sequence  "  from  Bach's  Invention  in  F-Major 

motive.  ist  transposition. 


ist  transposition. 


PJiS 


IE 


t^EE3E 


-F h 


2nd  transposition. 


m^ 


ZWZIL 


2nd  transposition. 


9^ 


:f=«fc 


^ 


key,  the  second  returning  home  —  much  as  the  King  of 
France,  with  twenty  thousand  men,  marched  up  the  hill 
and  then  marched  down  again.  Such  a  two-part  structure 
is  observable  in  thousands  of  short  pieces,  and  is  called  by 
musicians  *'  binary  form. " 

The  difference  in  texture  between  this  piece  and  any 
folk-song  or  dance  will  best  be  appreciated  by  playing  over 
the  bass  part  alone,  when  it  will  be  seen  that,  far  from  being 
mere  "filling"  or  accompaniment,  it  is  a  delightful  melody 
in  itself,  almost  as  interesting  as  its  more  prominent  com- 
panion. Indeed,  in  the  whole  invention  there  are  only  two 
tones  (the  C  and  the  A  in  the  final  chord)  which  are  not 
melodically  necessary.  Such  is  the  splendid  economy  and 
clearness  of  Bach's  musical  thinking. 

Before  going  further,  the  reader  should  examine  for  him- 


THE   POLYPHONIC  MUSIC    OF   BACH  3? 

self  several  typical  inventions,  as,  for  example.  No.  I,  in 
C-major;  No.  II,  in  C-minor;  No.  X,  in  G-major,  and  No. 
XIII,  in  A-minor,  in  this  set  by  Bach,  noting  in  each  case: 
(1)  the  individuality  of  the  motives  used,  (2)  the  imitations 
from  voice  to  voice,  (3)  the  sequences,  (4)  the  modulations, 
(5)  the  polyphonic  character,  as  evidenced  by  the  self-suffi- 
ciency and  melodic  interest  of  the  bass,  and  (6)  the  struc- 
tural division  of  the  entire  invention  into  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct sections. 

III.     A  Fugue  by  Bach. 

The  same  general  method  of  composing  that  is  exem- 
plified in  the  inventions  we  see  applied  on  a  larger  scale  in 
the  fugues  of  Bach. 

The  definition  of  a  fugue  given  by  some  wag  —  '*a 
piece  of  music  in  which  one  voice  after  another  comes  in, 
and  one  listener  after  another  goes  out"  —  is  true  only  when 
the  listeners  are  uneducated.  For  a  trained  ear  there  is  no 
keener  pleasure  than  following  the  windings  of  a  well  written 
fugue.  It  is,  at  the  same  time,  true  that  a  fugue  presents  es- 
pecial difficulties  to  the  ear,  because  of  its  intricately  inter- 
woven melodies.  In  a  folk-song  there  is  not  only  but  one 
melody,  with  nothing  to  distract  the  attention  from  it,  but  it  is 
composed  in  definite  phrases  of  equal  length,  like  the  lines  in 
poetry,  with  a  pause  at  the  end  of  each,  in  which  the  mind 
of  the  listener  can  take  breath,  so  to  speak,  and  rest  a 
moment  before  renewing  attention.  Not  so  in  the  fugue, 
where  the  bits  of  tune  occur  all  through  the  whole  range  of 
the  music,  are  of  varying  lengths  and  character,  and  overlap 


38  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

in  such  a  way  that  there  are  few  if  any  moments  of  complete 
rest  for  the  attention.  Perhaps  this  is  the  chief  reason  why 
fugues  have  the  reputation  of  being  "dry." 

As  is  suggested  by  the  derivation  of  the  word  "fugue," 
from  the  Latin  "fuga,"  a  flight,  the  characteristic  pecu- 
harity  of  the  form  is  the  entrance,  one  after  another,  of  the 
several  voices,  which  thus  seem  to  pursue  or  chase  one 
another,  to  go  through  a  sort  of  musical  game  of  "tag,"  in 
which  first  one  and  then  another  is  "It."  First  one  voice 
begins  with  the  "subject"  of  the  fugue,  in  the  "tonic"  key 
(key  in  which  the  piece  is  written).  Next  enters  a  second 
voice,  "imitating"  the  first,  but  presenting  the  subject  not 
in  the  "tonic,"  but  in  the  "dominant"  key.  Then  a  third, 
once  more  in  the  tonic,  and  finally  the  fourth,  again  in  the 
dominant.  iVfter  these  entrances  all  four  voices  proceed  to 
play  with  the  subject,  transposing  it  in  all  sorts  of  ingenious 
ways,  and  straying  off  at  times  into  episodes,  generally  in 
"sequence"  form,  but  finally  coming  back,  towards  the  end 
of  the  fugue,  with  renewed  energy  to  the  subject  itself.  All 
this  may  be  seen  in  such  an  example  as  the  Fugue  in  C- 
minor  in  Bach's  "Well-Tempered  Clavichord." 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  2. 

Bach :  Fugue  No.  2,  C-minor,  in  three  voices.      "  Well- 
Tempered  Clavichord.*'    Book  1.* 

Like  all  the  fugues  in  Bach's  "Well-Tempered  Clavi- 
chord," this  fugue  is  preceded  by  a  prelude,  in  free  style, 
like  a  series  of  embroideries  on  chords,  intended  to  prepare 

*  Number  the  measures,  and  call  the  voices  sopf  ano,  alto,  and  bass. 


THE   POLYPHONIC   MUSIC    OF  BACH  39 

the  nearer  for  the  more  active  musical  enjoyment  of  the 
fugue  to  come.  Parry,  in  the  "Oxford  History  of  Music," 
says  of  the  Prelude  of  Bach  and  Handel:  "It  might  be  a 
simple  series  of  harmonies  such  as  a  player  might  extempo- 
rize before  beginning  the  Suite  or  the  Fugue,  [such  is  the 
case  in  the  present  prelude];  or,  its  theme  might  be 
treated  in  a  continuous  consistently  homogeneous  movement 
unrestricted  as  to  length,  but  never  losing  sight  of  the 
subject"  ....  etc. 

A  fugal  subject  is  usually  longer  and  more  pretentious 
than  an  invention  subject,  and  more  nearly  approaches 
what  we  should  call  a  complete  melody.  It  may  contain 
several  motives.  Moreover,  while  the  second  voice  is 
"answering"  the  subject,  the  first  voice  continues  with 
further  melody,  and  if  this  is  of  definite,  individual  character 
it  may  easily  assume  almost  as  great  importance  as  the  sub- 
ject itself,  in  which  case  we  may  give  it  the  name  of  "coun- 
ter-subject." In  Figure  XI  the  subject  and  counter-'sub- 
ject  of  this  fugue  are  shown.  The  long  brackets  show 
subject  and  counter-subject;  the  short  brackets  show  the 
three  chief  motives,  marked  a,  b,  and  c.  The  simplicity  of 
the  melodic  material  is  noticeable.  Motive  a,  which,  with 
its  three  repetitions,  forms  most  of  the  subject,  consists  of 
five  tones,  in  a  charming  and  unforgettable  rhythm  of  two 
shorts  and  three  longs.  Motive  b  is  simply  a  descending 
scale,  in  equal  short  notes.  Motive  c  is  four  equal  long 
notes.  Play  the  subject  and  counter-subject  through  sepa- 
rately, several  times,  and  get  them  well  "by  heart"  before 
going  farther. 


40 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


This  fugue  is  a  wonderful  example  of  what,  a  master- 
composer  can  make  out  of  simple  materials;  the  whole 
piece  is  built  from  these  three  motives.     Our  analysis  may 

FIGURE    XI. 

SUBJECT  AND   COUNTER-SUBJECT  OF  BACH'S   FUGUE  IN   C-MINOR 
(WELL-TEMPERED   CLAVICHORD) 


ar^ 


fr^-^^— ^ 


Subject,  in  Alto. 


Subject,  in  Soprano. 


1  r 


^ — id — *— p= — #^^4tf-r-^i — ^—^—j-^-^ — •-^-  -^ 


conveniently  be  made  in  tabular  form,  the  student  being 
expected  to  trace  out  the  development  for  himself,  measure 
by  measure. 

Table  of  Thematic    Treatment  of  Fugue  in  C-MmoB 
Measures. 

1-  2  Subject  in  Alto. 

3-  4  Subject  "answered"  in  Soprano  ("imitation"),  counter-subject  in  Alto. 

5-  6  Episode  1:  Motive  a  prominent  in  Soprano. 

7-  8  Subject  in  Bass,  counter-subject  in  Soprano,  fragments  of  motive  c  in  Alto. 

9-10  Episode  2:  Motive  a  tossed  between  Soprano  and  Alto,  motive  b  in  Bass. 

11-12  Subject,  in  key  of  E-flat  major,  in  Soprano,  counter-subject  in  Bass. 

13-14  Episode  3:  Motive  b  in  Soprano,  motive  c  in  other  two  voices. 

15-16  Subject  in  Alto,  counter-subject  in  Soprano,  motive  c  in  Bass. 

17-19  Episode  4:  Motives  a  and  b  variously  distributed  between  all  three  voices. 

20-21  Subject  in  Soprano,  in  tonic  key  again,  counter-subject  in  Alto,  motive  c  in  Bass 

22-25  Episode  5:  Motives  a  and  b  in  all  voices. 

26-28  Climax:  Subject  in  Bass,  motives  6  and  c  in  other  voices. 

29-31  Coda :  Subject  in  Soprano. 


THE  POLYPHONIC  MUSIC   OF  BACH 


41 


Note  that  all  the  episodes  take  the  form  of  sequences, 
as,  for  example,  in  the  following  instance  (measures  9-10); 

FIGURE  XI  a. 
A  SEQUENCE   FROM   BACH'S   FUGUE   IN   C-MINOR. 


:5:  r-j. 


f    0    f 


:^^ 


^5?=? 


b     i  »-■■. — «- 


m. 


i=p^ 


L_ 


-^ — •- 


i=*=J=J=^s 


•     4 


The  general  form  of  this  fugue  illustrates  the  same 
principles  of  modulation,  and  of  restatement  of  subject  after 
contrast,  that  we  noticed  in  the  folk-songs  and  in  the  inven- 
tion.    This  may  be  tabulated  thus: 

Table  Showing  Structube  of  Fugue  in  C-Minor. 


A. 

STATEMENT. 

Measures  1-10  in  key  of 
C-minor. 


B. 

CONTRAST. 

Measures  11-19  in  various  keys, 
•beginning  with  E-flat. 


A. 

RESTATEMENT. 

Measures  20-31  in  C- 
minor. 


The  modulation  in  this  case,  however,  is  not  to  the 
"dominant"  key,  but  to  what  is  called  the  "relative 
major"  key,  as  is  usual  in  pieces  written   in   minor  keys. 


42 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


(see  the  folk-song,  "Sister  Fair,"  in  Chapter  II),  the 
reason  being  that  the  relative  major  affords  the  most 
natural  contrast  to  a  minor  key,  just  as  the  dominant 
affords  the  most  natural  contrast  to  a  major  key. 

The  conclusion  is  emphasized  by  the  finely  rugged  state- 
ment of  the  subject  in  Bass  at  measure  26. 

The  treatment  of  this  fugue,  for  all  its  consummate 
skill,  is  comparatively  simple.  It  does  not  employ  the  more 
subtle  devices  often  employed  in  fugues,  of  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  following: 

1.  "Inversion:"  The  subject  turned  upside  down, 
while  retaining  its  identity  by  means  of  its  rhythm. 


FIGURE   XII. 
TBDE  DEVICE   OF  "INVERSION.' 


Original  subject. 


■#-     -#-^-#-     -^     "f^  -f-  -0-  -^  ~ 


-0-     -ff- 


FIGURE   Xin. 
THE  DEVICES  OF  "AUGMENTATION"  AND   "DIMINUTION. 


Original  subject. 

"  b r 


Augmentation, 


gB3E^^^:^p  ^fejEj^jJE^^ 


Original  subject. 


SiG 


-^-»— 


--^ 


Diminution. 


^ 


P 


•-,h 


THE   POLYPHONIC  MUSIC  OF  BACH  48 

2.  "Augmentation  and  Diminution:"  The  length  of 
the  notes  doubled  or  halved,  while  their  relative  length,  or 
rhythm,  is  carefully  maintained.     (Figure  XIII.) 

3.  "Shifted  rhythm;"'  The  subject  shifted  as  regards 
its  position  in  the  measure,  so  that  all  the  accents  fall 
differently. 

FIGURE  XIV. 
DEVICE   OF  "SfflFTED   RHYTHM." 
Original  Subject  Shifted. 


gip^^^^^  #ife%^ 


4.  "  Stretto : "  The  imitation  of  the  subject  by  a  second 
voice  occurring  prematurely,  before  the  first  voice  has  cora- 
plpted  the  subject,  frequently  with  highly  dramatic  effect. 
(6)  in  Figure  IX  is  an  example  of  stretto. 

These  devices  are  mentioned  here  not  only  because  they 
occur  in  many  fugues,  but  because  they  are  used  in  the  sym- 
phonic music  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  as  we  shall  later 
have  occasion  to  see. 

IV,    General  Qualities  of  Bach's  Work. 

Perhaps  the  most  exacting  of  all  tests  applicable  to  nmsic 
is  the  test  of  economy.  Are  there  superfluous  tones  that 
do  not  enrich  the  harmony.?  Are  there  unnecessary  sub- 
jects not  needed  to  fill  the  scheme  of  design.?  If  so,  no 
matter  how  beautiful  the  music,  it  is  defective  as  art.  Bach 
bears  this  test  victoriously.  There  is  not  a  note  of  his 
writing  which   one  would   willingly  sacrifice.     There  is  not 

^  The  reader  should  examine  the  example  of  sliifted  rhythm  given  in  the  second 
chapter  in  deaUng  with  the  German  song,  "Sister  Fair." 


44  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

a  melody  that  is  not  needed.  Each  subject  is  not  merely 
introduced  and  dismissed,  but  is  developed  to  the  utmost, 
so  that  all  that  was  implicit  in  its  germ  becomes  explicit 
in  its  final  form.  There  is  no  confusion  of  the  outline,  no 
overcrowding  of  the  canvas,  no  blotchiness  in  the  color. 
As  Giotto  proved  his  supremacy  among  draughtsmen  by 
the  apparently  simple  but  really  enormously  difficult  feat 
of  drawing  a  complete,  perfect  circle  with  one  stroke  of  the 
pencil,  so  Bach  constantly  proves  his  supremacy  among 
musicians  by  making  two  voices  satisfy  the  ear  like  an 
orchestra.  And  this  purity  of  texture  is  quite  compatible 
with  the  utmost  richness.  Indeed,  Bach's  polyphonic  scores 
are  inimitably  rich,  since  each  voice  sings  its  own  melody, 
and  the  melodies  all  interplay  harmoniously  like  the  lines 
of  a  well-composed  picture.  Those  who  call  Bach's  fugues 
dry  make  an  astonishing  confession  of  their  own  insensi- 
bility or  crudity  of  taste.  Bach's  melodies  are  not,  to  be 
sure,  like  "Annie  Laurie "  or  "Home,  Sweet  Home.'* 
But  neither  is  daylight  like  candle  light;  yet  we  do 
not  call  it  darkness  because  it  is  diffused  through  all 
the  atmosphere  instead  of  concentrated  in  a  single  visible 
ray. 

Bach's  daring  has  been  the  subject  of  the  endless 
admiration  of  students.  Especially  in  the  matter  of  har- 
mony he  did  things  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  entirely 
on  his  own  responsibility,  that  whole  schools  of  com- 
posers band  together  with  a  sense  of  revolutionary  courage 
to  do  in  the  twentieth.  He  is  truly  one  of  the  most  modern 
of  composers,  and  will  always  remain  so.     Composers  who 


THE   POLYPHONIC  MUSIC  OF  BACH  45 

might  have  been  his  grandsons  are  now  antiquated,  while 
he  is  always  contemporary  with  the  best  musical  thought. 
Brahms,  irritated  at  Rubinstein's  persistent  patronizing 
of  "Papa  Haydn"  in  his  book,  "A  Conversation  on  Music," 
remarked  in  his  dry  way:  "Rubinstein  will  soon  be  Great- 
grandfather Rubinstein,  but  Haydn  will  then  be  still  Papa 
Haydn."  The  same  might  be  said  even  more  truly  of 
Bach,  who  will  always  be  the  father  of  musicians. 

Another  way  in  which  Bach  is  modern  is  in  the  variety 
of  his  musical  expression.  It  is  not  only  that  his  range  of 
dilferent  species  c^  works  is  so  great,  reaching  from  the 
ecstatically  tender  and  exalted  religious  choral  composi- 
tions, sucn  as  cantatas,  motets,  oratorios,  and  passions, 
through  the  grand  and  monumental  organ  toccatas  and 
fugues,  to  the  intimate,  colloquial  suites  and  sonatas  for 
orchestra  and  for  clavichord;  it  is  even  more  wonderful  that 
in  a  single  work,  such  as  the  "  Well-Tempered  Clavichord, " 
he  knows  how  to  sound  the  whole  gamut  of  human  feeling, 
from  the  deep  and  sombre  passions  of  the  soul  to  the  homely 
gaiety  or  bantering  humor  of  an  idle  moment.^  Bach  might 
have  boasted,  had  it  been  in  his  nature  to  boast,  that  in  this 
work  he  had  not  only  written  in  every  key  known  to 
musicians,  but  in  every  mood  known  to  men.  It  is  the 
musical  "  Comedie  Humaine." 

Bach  lived  quietly  and  in  almost  complete  obscurity; 
for  the  last  quarter-century  of  his  life  he  held  a  post  as 
teacher   of   music    and    church-music   director   in   Leipsic. 

^  In  Book  I,  for  example.  Fugue  II  is  as  light  and  delicate  as  XII  is  serious  and 
earnest;  XVI  is  pathetic,  XVII  vigorous  and  rugged,  XVIII  thoughtful  and  mystical, 
etc. 


46  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

He  travelled  little,  sought  no  worldly  fame,  took  no  pains  to 
secure  performances  of  his  works,  and,  above  all,  made 
no  compromise  with  the  popular  taste  of  his  day.  He  pro- 
duced his  great  compositions,  one  after  another,  in  the 
regular  day's  work,  for  performance  in  his  church  or 
by  local  orchestras  and  players.  He  never  pined  for 
a  recognition  that  in  the  nature  of  things  he  could 
not  have;  he  wrote  the  music  that  seemed  good  to  him, 
and  thought  that  his  responsibitily  ended  there,  and  that 
his  reward  lay  there.  The  cynic  who  said  "  Every  man  has 
his  price"  was  evidently  not  acquainted  with  the  life  of 
Bach.  Steadily  ignoring  those  temptations  to  prostitute 
his  genius  for  the  public's  pleasure,  which  so  materially 
affected  the  life  course  of  his  great  contemporary  Handel, 
he  followed  his  own  ideals  with. an  undivided  mind.  As 
always  happens  in  such  cases,  since  it  takes  decades  for 
the  world  to  comprehend  a  sincere  individual,  or  even 
centuries  if  his  individuality  is  deep  and  unique,  he  was  not 
appreciated  in  his  life-time,  nor  for  many  years  after  his 
death. 

Indeed,  he  is  not  appreciated  now,  for  a  man  can  be 
appreciated  only  by  his  equals.  But  we  have  at  last  got 
an  inkling  of  the  treasure  that  still  lies  hidden  away  in 
Bach;  and  while  Handel  and  the  other  idols  of  the  age 
sound  daily  more  thin  and  archaic.  Bach  grows  ever  richer 
as  the  understanding  we  bring  to  him  increases,  and  still 
holds  out  his  promise  of  novel  and  perennial  artistic 
delights. 


THE   POLYPHONIC  MUSIC  OF  BACH  47 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Readlng 

W.  R.  Spalding :  "  Tonal  Counterpoint."  Edward 
Dickinson  :  "  Study  of  the  History  of  Music,  *^  Chapter  XX. 
C.  H.  H.  Parry:  "Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music" 
Chapter  VIH. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

the  dance  and  its  development. 
1.    Musical  Character  of  Dances. 

In  the  last  chapter  we  studied  the  most  important 
applications  of  the  "polyphonic  "  style,  which  originated  in 
music  for  voices,  to  the  music  of  instruments.  We  saw  how 
in  such  music  the  attention  of  the  composer  was  divided 
among  several  equally  important  voices  or  parts,  and  how 
much  he  made  of  the  principle  of  imitation;  and  in  connec- 
tion with  the  fugue  we  remarked  that  the  very  complex  inter- 
weaving of  the  different  voices  in  such  music,  one  beginning 
before  another  leaves  off,  and  all  together  making  an 
intricate  web,  presented  certain  diflSculties  to  the  listener 
accustomed  to  the  more  modern  style,  in  which  a  single 
voice  has  the  melody,  and  stops  short  at  regular  intervals, 
giving  the  hearer  a  chance  to  draw  breath,  as  it  were,  and 
renew  attention  for  what  is  coming  next.  Listening  to 
modern  music  is  like  reading  a  series  of  short  sentences, 
each  clearly  and  definitely  ended  by  its  own  full  stop. 
Listening  to  the  old  polyphony  is  more  like  reading  one  of 
those  long  and  involved  sentences  of  De  Quincey  or  Walter 
Pater,  in  which  the  clauses  are  intricately  interwoven  and 
nmtually  dependent,  so  that  we  can  get  the  sense  only  by 
a  long-sustained  effort  of  attention. 

This  more  involved  style,   suitable  to  voices,  but  less 

48 


THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT  49 

natural  to  instruments,  had  historically  a  very  long  life. 
Much  of  the  instrumental  music  of  the  sixteenth,  seven- 
teenth, and  eighteenth  centuries  was  in  fact  nothing  but 
a  transference  to  instruments  of  music  really  conceived  for 
voices.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  madrigals  and  canzonas,  which  were  compositions 
for  voices  in  the  polyphonic  style  but  of  a  more  secular 
character  than  church  music,  were  exceedingly  popular,  the 
composers  for  stringed  instruments  and  for  the  then  very 
fashionable  lutes,  "when  they  wanted  something  of  a 
superior  order,  .  .  .  simply  played  madrigals,  or  wrote 
music  in  imitation  of  any  of  the  varieties  of  choral  music, 
not  realizing  that  without  the  human  tones  .  .  .  which 
gave  expression  to  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  melodic 
material,  the  effect  was  pointless  and  flat.  "^  Even  Bach 
and  Handel,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  were,  by  their  deeply- 
rooted  habit  of  thinking  vocally,  in  some  degree  hampered 
in  the  search  for  a  purely  instrumental  style.  Instru- 
mental music,  having  to  get  along  without  w^ords,  must  find 
some  principle  of  coherence,  some  kind  of  definite  design, 
which  will  make  it  intelligible  without  the  help  of  words,  and 
enable  it  to  stand  on  its  own  feet. 

And  here  comes  in  the  importance  of  folk-song,  and  of 
the  folk-dance  which  grew  up  beside  it,  to  our  modern  instru- 
mental music.  For  both  song  and  dance  pointed  the  way 
to  such  a  principle  of  independent  intelligibility,  through 
definite  balance  of  phrases  (see  Chapter  I),  and  through 
contrasts  and  resemblances  of  key  in  the  various  phrases  and 

^  Pany:  Evolution  of  the  Axt  of  Music,  page  ll.'>. 


60  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIO 

sections  of  a  composition.  Music  intended  to  accompany 
songs  or  dances  had  to  consist  of  balanced  phrases  of  equal 
length  —  in  the  case  of  songs,  because  it  had  to  reproduce 
the  verse  structure  of  the  words,  which  of  course  were  com- 
posed in  regular  stanzas  of  equal  lines,  and  in  the  case  of 
dances,  because  it  had  to  afford  a  basis  for  symmetrical 
movements  of  the  body.  And  when  once  it  was  thus  divided 
up  into  equal  phrases,  it  took  musicians  but  a  short  time  to 
find  that  these  phrases  could  be  effectively  contrasted,  and 
made  the  parts  of  larger  musical  organisms,  by  being  put 
into  different  keys  (as  we  have  seen  in  the  instances  of  mod- 
ulation cited  in  Chapters  II  and  III).  How  vital  these 
principles  of  structure  in  balanced  phrases  and  sections,  and 
of  contrast  of  keys,  are  to  the  entire  modern  development 
of  music,  we  shall  realize  fully  only  as  we  proceed. 

Again,  both  song  and  dance  have  proved  supremely 
important  to  the  development  of  the  homophonic  style  (one 
melody,  with  accompaniment  not  itself  melodic).  In  the 
case  of  song  the  reason  is  obvious.  A  song  rendered  by  a 
solo  voice,  with  instrumental  accompaniment,  naturally 
takes  the  homophonic  style,  since  it  would  be  highly  artifi- 
cial to  make  the  subordinate  element  in  the  combination  as 
prominent  as  the  chief  one.  Dance  is  less  inevitably  homo- 
phonic than  song;  indeed  many  dances,  as  we  shall  see,  are 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  polyphonic;  but  nevertheless  the 
tendency  toward  homophony  is  always  apparent.  In  the 
first  place,  the  interweaving  of  many  melodies  would  tend 
to  obscure  the  division  into  definite  phrases,  since  an  inner 
melody  might  sometimes  fill  up  the  pause  in  the  main  one. 


THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT 


51 


as  we  saw  it  constantly  doing  in  the  fugue.  Secondly,  the 
mode  of  performing  dances  tends  to  give  prominence  to  a 
single  melody.  The  old  dances  were  generally  played  by 
one  melodic  instrument,  such  as  a  violin  or  hautboy,  accom- 
panied by  chords  on  an  instrument  of  the  lute  or  guitar 


FIGURE  XV 


C/n  poco  allegro.  (J  ^  80.)  p 


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I 


P2  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

family,  and  frequently  by  a  drum  to  strengthen  the  accents. 
Such  a  combination  affords  but  one  prominent  *'  voice,"  and 
does  not  lend  itself  naturally  to  polyphonic  writing. 

The  "Tambourin,"  for  instance,  an  old  French  dance 
of  Provence,  was  played  by  one  performer,  the  melody  with 
one  hand  on  the  '*galoubet,"  a  kind  of  pipe  or  flageolet,  and 
the  accompanying  rhythm  with  the  other  on  a  small  drum. 
The  quotation  in  Figure  XV,  taken  from  Wekerlin's  col- 
lection, "Echos  du  Temps  Passe"  (Vol.  Ill),  is  a  good 
example  of  this  ancient  dance.  In  this  arrangement  for 
piano,  the  left  hand  imitates  the  drum,  and  the  right 
hand  the  "galoubet"  or  pipe.  This  quotation  illustrates 
the  common  use  of  dance  melodies  in  songs.  Many 
primitive   airs   were   so   used  in   the   olden   times. 

II.    Primitive  Dances. 

The  rude  dances  which  spring  up  spontaneously  in  all 
communities,  savage  as  well  as  civilized,  and  of  which  we 
in  America  have  examples  in  the  war-dances  of  Indians  and 
the  cake-walks  of  negroes,  are  thus  seen  to  be  pregnant  of 
influence  on  developed  musical  art,  no  less  than  the  folk- 
songs which  we  discussed  in  the  second  chapter,  and  the  more 
academic  music  in  the  polyphonic  style  which  we  treated 
in  the  third.  Both  songs  and  dances,  indeed,  sometimes 
enter  into  artistic  music  even  in  their  crude  form,  but  in  most 
cases  composers  treat  them  with  a  certain  freedom,  and  in 
various  ways  enhance  their  effectiveness,  as  Haydn,  for 
instance,  treats  the  Croatian  folk-tune  "Jur  Postaje,"  in 


THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT 


53 


the  Andante  of  his  "  Paiikenwirbel  "  Symphony.  In  Figure 
XVI  the  reader  will  see  both  the  crude  form  of  the  turie  and 
the  shape  into  which  Haydn  moulds  it  for  his  purposes. 


FIGURE   XVI. 


"  Jur  Postaje." 

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54 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


In  the  long  process  of  development  which  songs  and  dances 
thus  undergo  at  the  hands  of  composers,  they  of  course  lose 
to  some  extent  their  contrasting  characters,  until  in  modern 
music  the  dance  and  the  song  elements  are  as  inextricably 
interwoven  as  the  warp  and  the  woof  of  a  well-made 
fabric. 

As  imitation  is  only  slightly  available  in  homophonic 
music,  the  unity  so  vital  to  all  art  is  attained  in  dances  chiefly 
by  transpositions  of  motives,  often  in  systematic  "  sequences," 
by  more  or  less  exact  balance  of  phrases,  and  by  restatement 
after  contrast.  In  crude  examples  these  means  are  crudely 
used;  in  the  work  of  masters  they  are  treated  with  more 
subtlety  and  elasticity;  but  always  a  careful  analysis  will 
discover  them.  It  will  now  prove  enlightening  to  compare, 
from  this  point  of  view,  three  dance  tunes  of  very  different 
degrees  of  merit. 

FIGURE  XVII 
A  "Branle"  or  "Bra^^l"  from  Arbeau's  Orcbesographie,   (1545). 


i 


W: 


^ 


i^i 


■•-^5^ 


Si 


:T-7i 


m^ 


lizzt 


^^ 


*=E 


rfl 


1^ 


Figure  XVII  shows  an  ancient  "Branle"  or  "Brawl" 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  taken  from  Arbeau's  "Orcbeso- 
graphie," published  in  1545. 


THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT  55 

The  strong  meter,  causing  a  distinct  accent  on  the  first 
note  of  each  measure,  will  at  once  be  noted,  especially  if 
it  be  contrasted  with  the  more  moderate  accentuation  of  the 
folk-songs  of  Chapter  II.  Such  strong  meter  is  naturally 
characteristic  of  all  dance  tunes,  intended  as  they  are  to 
guide  and  stimulate  the  regular  steps  of  the  dancer. 

The  phrase  balance,  though  marked,  is  not  absolutely 
regular,  but  the  two  two-measure  phrases  at  the  beginning 
and  the  single  one  at  the  end  suffice  to  give  an  impression 
of  pronounced  symmetry.  The  six-measure  phrase  after 
the  double  bar  is  generated  by  the  sequential  treatment  of 
the  little  motive  of  measure  5. 

This  sequence  (measures  5,  6,  7,  8,  9)  is  worthy  of  note 
because  of  the  excessive  length  to  which  it  is  carried.  Five 
repetitions  are  too  many,  and  grow  monotonous.  A  more 
skilful  composer  would  have  secured  his  unity  without  so 
great  a  sacrifice  of  variety  —  in  a  word,  he  would  have 
treated  a  device  good  in  itself  with  less  crudity. 

The  exact  repetition  of  measures  3-4  at  the  end  is  an 
effective  use  of  restatement  after  contrast.  Although  the 
whole  of  the  original  theme  is  not  given,  there  is  enough  of 
it  to  give  the  sense  of  orderliness  in  design. 

A  Gavotte  in  F-major  by  Arcangelo  Corelli  (1653-1713), 
the  famous  violin  virtuoso  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
printed  in  Augener's  edition  of  Pieces  by  Corelli,  will 
illustrate  a  distinctly  higher  stage  in  the  treatment  of  a 
dance  form.     This  is  well  worth  a  brief  analysis. 


66  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  3. 
Corelli:  Gavotte  in  F-Major. 

Here  the  phrase  balance,  though  entirely  satisfying  to 
the  sense  of  rhvthm,  is  much  more  elastic  than  in  the  brawl. 
The  measure-lengths  of  the  phrases  are  not  all  the  same; 
they  are  as  follows:  1,  1,  2,  1,  1,  1,  2,  2.  This  gives  the  tune 
an  agreeable  variety. 

It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  the  sequence  is  still 
treated  rather  fumblingly.  In  the  three  measures  after 
the  double  bar,  the  same  motive  is  repeated  thrice,  each  time 
higher  than  before,  and  to  a  fastidious  ear  the  third  repeti- 
tion grows  slightly  wearisome. 

On  the  w^hole,  nevertheless,  the  gain  in  elasticity  and 
freedom  over  the  last  example  is  marked. 

The  general  structure  and  scheme  of  modulation  in  this 
little  Gavotte  of  Corelli  deserves  careful  attention,  because 
it  is  in  these  respects  typical  of  a  very  great  number,  indeed 
of  the  majority  of  the  short  dances  of  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  It  is  divided  into  two  distinct 
halves,  and  while  each  deals  with  the  same  musical  material, 
the  two  are  strongly  contrasted  in  the  matter  of  key.  The 
first  begins  in  the  home  key  and  leaves  it  to  end  in  a  con- 
trasted key,  in  the  present  case  the  "dominant."  The 
second,  beginning  in  the  dominant,  modulates  back  again 
to  the  home  key,  and  ends  there.  This  scheme,  called  by 
musicians  "binary"  or  "two-part"  form,  is  a  very  simple 
and  natural  one  for  short  pieces  of  this  kind,  and  is  to  be 
found  in  thousands  of  the"  movements  of  Corelli,  Scarlatti, 


THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT  57 

Crviperin,  Rameau,  Purcell,  Handel,  Bach,  and  other 
masters  of  their  day.  It  is  even  more  common  than  the 
"ternary"  form  to  which  we  shall  come  in  a  moment. 

III.    A  Bach  Gavotte. 

If  the  reader  will  now  compare  with  these  two  dances 
the  Gavotte  in  the  sixth  English  Suite  of  J.  S.  Bach,  who 
had  the  advantage  of  living  half  a  century  later  than  Corelli 
(besides  being  an  immeasurably  greater  genius),  he  will 
be  amazed  to  see  the  power  and  originality  with  which  a 
master  can  treat  a  traditional  form.' 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  4. 
Bach:  Gavotte  in  D-Minor  from  the  Sixth  English  Suite. 

Before  looking  at  matters  of  detail,  we  must  notice  the 
structure  of  the  piece  as  a  whole,  since  it  is  not  only  highly 
interesting  in  itself,  but  is  an  example  —  the  first  we  have 
had  on  a  large  scale  —  of  a  type  of  construction  that  is 
perhaps  more  popular  with  musicians  of  all  schools  than 
anv  other. 

This  structural  type  is  nothing  but  an  application  to 
an  entire  piece  of  that  three-part  form  which  we  have  seen 
in  little  in  the  Galician  folk-song  of  Chapter  I  and  in 
"Polly  Oliver"  in  Chapter  II,  and  to  which  we  may  now 
give  the  name  of  "ternary  form,"  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  "binary  form"  discussed  in  Chapter  III.     Bach  here 

'  For  this  analysis,  number  all  the  measures  and  parts  of  measures  consecutively, 
which  wU  give  35  measure  numbers  in  the  Gavotte  proper,  and  28  in  the  second  Gavotta 
or  Musette. 


68  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

writes  two  distinct  gavottes,  repeating  the  first  after  the 
second:  so  that  Gavotte  I  is  a  statement,  Gavotte  II  a 
contrast  (emphasized  by  change  of  key  from  minor  to 
major),  and  the  repeated  Gavotte  I  a  restatement.  This 
practice  is  very  frequent  in  Bach's  suites,  where  we  often 
find  two  courantes,  two  bourrees,  two  passepieds,  two 
minuets,  etc.,  combined  in  this  way,  the  function  of  the  sec- 
ond being  to  afford  contrast  to  the  first.  In  some  instances 
the  second  of  the  pair  is  called  "trio,"  probably  because 
the  earliest  examples  were  written  in  three-voice  harmony, 
or  "musette,"  from  the  French  word  for  "bagpipe,"  in 
reference  to  the  drone  bass  imitating  that  instrument. 
(This  is  the  case  in  the  present  gavotte,  where  the  gavotte  II 
bears  the  alternative  name  of  musette.) 

In  the  sonatas  and  symphonies  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and 
Beethoven,  as  we  shall  see  later,  this  three-section  structure 
is  found  in  the  minuet  with  trio,  and  in  the  scherzo  with 
trio.  Nor  is  it  less  common  in  modern  music,  occurring 
notably  in  the  marches  of  Schubert,  many  of  the  short 
pieces  of  Schumann,  in  the  polonaises  and  some  of  the 
nocturnes  of  Chopin,  in  the  rhapsodies  and  intermezzos 
of  Brahms,  and  in  the  lyric  pieces  of  Grieg.  Indeed,  its 
naturalness  and  clearness  inevitably  commend  it  to  all 
composers. 

Looking  more  closely  we  see,  again,  that  the  same 
scheme  is  used  by  Bach  in  each  of  the  two  gavottes,  con- 
sidered separately.  In  the  first,  we  note  the  structure  A  = 
measures  1-10,  B  =  measures  11-27,  A  =  measures  27-35; 
in  the  second  we  find,  A  =  measures  1-10,  B  —  measures 


THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT  59 

11-19,   A  =  measures    19-28.     The  student  should  verify 
this  analysis  for  himself. 

Proceeding  now  to  details,  we  notice  first  that  Bach, 
supreme  master  of  polyphony  that  he  is,  writes  even  a 
gavotte  in  such  a  way  that  each  of  its  voices  has  its  own 
melodic  value.  The  gavotte  itself  is  in  three  voices  through- 
out, and  the  musette  in  two,  and  while  these  voices  are  not 
so  purely  melodic  as  in  an  invention  or  a  fugue,  and  there 
is  little  strict  imitation,  yet  the  general  effect  is  polyphonic 
rather  than  homophonic.  In  measures  27-31  the  alto 
voice  even  has  the  theme. 

The  phrase  balance  is  freer  than  even  Corelli's,  because 
Bach's  mind  is  quicker  to  sieze  upon  and  work  out  the 
latent  possibilities  of  his  melodies.  All  begins  regularly 
enough:  the  first  four  phrases  are  each  two  measures  in 
length;  but  after  the  double  bar  the  "plot  begins  to  thicken." 
First  we  find  two  more  phrases  just  like  the  preceding  ones 
(measures  11-13  and  13-15);  but  in  the  next  phrase, 
begun  in  the  same  way,  in  measure  15,  the  yeast  of  Bach's 
fancy  begins  to  work,  and  the  melody  broadens  out  in  a 
series  of  evolutions,  first  in  the  soprano  and  later  in  the  alto, 
not  coming  again  to  a  point  of  rest  (end  of  a  phrase)  until 
measure  23.  This  extension  of  a  phrase  through  the  ger- 
mination or  blossoming  of  the  thought  (in  this  case  it  all 
comes  from  the  bit  of  melody  in  measure  7)  is  a  matter  of 
supreme  importance  in  composition,  and  this  instance  of 
it,  as  well  as  another  in  measures  23-27,  should  be  care- 
fully studied  by  any  one  who  desires  to  understand  music. 
The  power  thus  to  develop  or  draw  forth  the  hidden  poten- 


60  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIO 

tialities  of  his  motives  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all 
the  gifts  which  go  to  make  a  composer.  Still  further 
instances  of  it  should  now  be  found  by  the  student  himself 
in  the  musette. 

The  artistic  freedom  and  felicity  of  Bach's  way  of  work- 
ing is  further  illustrated  by  the  manner  in  which,  while 
using  the  general  principle  of  the  sequence  as  a  means  of 
giving  his  music  unity  of  idea,  he  avoids  those  overliteral, 
mechanical  transpositions  of  motive  which  we  found  in  the 
more  primitive  dances.  There  is  just  the  contrast  here  that 
there  is  between  a  poor  speaker,  who  keeps  repeating  the 
same  word  or  phrase  with  futile  emphasis,  and  the  man  of 
real  eloquence,  who  follows  a  train  of  thought  no  less  closely, 
but  manages  constantly  to  cast  his  ideas  in  new  phraseology 
and  fresh  figures  of  speech,  so  that  the  variety  of  what  he 
says  is  quite  as  striking  as  its  fundamental  unity. 

The  element  of  variety  introduced  into  the  contrast- 
section  of  the  gavotte  (11-27),  by  the  free  modulation 
through  several  keys,  should  also  be  remarked.  The  plan 
of  modulation  is  different  from  any  we  have  yet  had. 
Instead  of  beginning  in  the  relative  major  (which  would  be 
the  key  of  F),  the  section  begins  in  the  dominant  minor  (A- 
minor).  A  good  many  keys  are  then  touched  upon  before 
the  tonic  or  home  key  is  reached  at  the  restatement  (27- 
35),  which,  by  a  charming  subtlety,  begins  with  the  theme 
in  the  alto  instead  of  the  soprano  voice. 

In  all  these  matters  w^e  detect  the  workings  of  an  original 
and  inventive  mind,  which,  far  from  being  hampered  by 
working  in  a  traditional  form,  is  stimulated  to  constantly 


THE  DANCE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT  61 

new  solutions  of  old  problems,  and  so  produces  a  piece  of 
music  at  once  perfectly  clear  and  fascinatingly  interesting. 
In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  see  how  composers  com- 
bined groups  of  such  dances  as  this,  with  other  pieces  of  a 
different  character,  into  those  suites  which  were  the  most 
popular  forms  of  instrumental  music  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

Grove's  Dictionary :  article  "  Rhythm,*'  and  articles 
under  names  of  various  dances,  as  *'  Gavotte,"  *'  Allemande,*' 
"  Courante,"  "  Minuet,"  "  Gigue,"  etc. 

Other  examples  of  dances  may  be  found  in  a  collection  of 
twenty-five  old  gavottes,  published  by  Breitkopf  and  Hdrtel, 
and  in  a  volume  of  miscellaneous  old  dances  in  the  Litolff 
Edition. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    SUITE. 

I.     Derivation  of  the  Suite. 

Once  musicians  had  begun  to  realize  how  dances  could 
be  developed  into  finished  pieces,  like  the  gavotte  of  Bach, 
which  we  discussed  in  the  last  chapter,  they  were  quick  to 
avail  themselves  of  this  advantage  by  combining  several 
such  dances  into  a  group,  thus  making  a  composition  of 
some  length  and  dignity  and  yet  of  popular,  easily  compre- 
hensible style.  Such  compositions,  known  in  England  as 
"Lessons,"  in  France  as  "Ordres, "  and  in  Germany  as 
"Suites"  and  "Partitas,"  became  numerous  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries. 

The  first  historical  step  in  the  development  of  the  suite 
was  taken  when  the  great  violin-makers  of  Cremona  and 
Brescia,  in  Italy,  brought  the  violin  to  a  wonderful  mechan- 
ical perfection  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Virtuosos 
on  this  brilliant  instrument  were  not  slow  to  appear,  and 
they  dazzled  their  audiences  with  pieces  known  as  sonatas, 
though  having  little  in  common  with  what  we  nowadays 
call  a  sonata.  Their  sonata  da  chiesa,  or  church  sonata, 
was  a  group  of  pieces,  all  polyphonic  in  character  and 
derived  from  the  old  choral  madrigals  and  canzonas;  the 
sonata  da  hallo,  or  dance  sonata,  was  a  group  of  dance  tunes; 
the  sonata  da  camera,  or  chamber  sonata,  combined  both 

62 


THE   SUITE  63 

types.  Gradually  the  first  become  obsolete,  and  the  second 
and  third  took  respectively  the  names  suite  and  partita, 
although  the  nomenclature  was  inexact,  as  suites  often  con- 
tained movements  of  strict  and  severe  polyphonic  style  as 
well  as  dances.  The  greatest  of  the  violin  virtuosos  was 
Arcangelo  Corelli,  whose  "sonatas"  retain  their  charm 
even  for  our  modern  ears,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  sample 
of  his  work  studied  in  the  last  chapter. 

About  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  keyed  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  harpsichord,  the  clavichord,  -the  spinet, 
and  other  precursors  of  our  modern  pianoforte,  first  reached 
the  degree  of  mechanical  perfection  which  enabled  them  to 
rival  the  violin;  and  it  was  accordingly  not  until  then  that 
important  pieces  for  such  keyed  instruments  began  to  be 
written.  At  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  centuries,  however,  we  find  interesting 
music  for  thes3  instruments  by  composers  of  several  nations. 
In  France  Couperin  (1668-1733)  wrote  what  he  called 
"Ordres, "  short  series  of  pieces  "  in  dance  style,  piquant  in 
rnythm,  melodiously  graceful,  profusely  embroidered  with 
embellishment;"'  and  he  was  followed  by  Rameau  (1683- 
1764)  with  similar  works.  A  curious  whim  of  these  French 
masters  was  the  appending  of  picturesque  titles  to  their 
pieces,  such  as  "The  Tambourine,"  "The  Hen,"  "The 
Return  of  the  Birds, "  etc.  —  a  practice  which  anticipates 
the  program  music  of  to-day. 

Italy  had  one  extraordinary  genius  in  this  department 
of    music,    Domenico    Scarlatti    (1683-1757).     He    was    a 

'  Edward  Dickin- jn,  "  The  Study  of  the  History  of  Music,"  page  84. 


64  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

most  brilliant  performer  on  the  harpsichord,  delighted  in 
all  feats  of  agility,  and  loved  to  surprise  and  astonish  his 
audience.  In  short  he  was  a  virtuoso,  and  his  performances 
must  have  created  the  kind  of  sensation  in  the  seventeenth 
century  that  Liszt's  did  in  the  nineteenth.  "For  vivacity, 
wit,  irony,  mischief,  mockery,  and  all  the  category  of  human 
traits  which  Beethoven's  scherzo  served  so  brilliantly  to 
express, "  says  Parry,  *'  the  world  had  to  wait  for  a  full  cen- 
tury to  see  Scarlatti's  equal  again. "  Some  of  the  preludes, 
sarabandes;  minuets,  courantes,  etc.,  composed  by  him,  still 
retain  their  interest.  His  beautiful  Pastorale  in  E-minor,  and 
his  "  Cat  fugue, "  written  on  a  theme  played  by  a  pet  cat  run- 
ning across  the  keyboard,  are  sometimes  heard  in  recitals. 

It  was  in  the  hands  of  the  German  masters,  Bach  and 
Handel,^  however,  that  the  suite  reached  its  highest  state. 
These  two  great  composers,  born  in  the  same  year,  1685, 
possessed  not  only  the  sense  of  technical  effect  which  made 
Scarlatti  great,  and  the  high  spirits,  enthusiasm,  and  sense 
of  proportion  which  are  needed  for  the  production  of  ideal- 
ized dance  movements  such  as  Couperin  and  Rameau  have 
given  us,  but  they  had  great  musical  learning,  and  much 
experience  in  the  use  of  the  strict  choral  style  of  polyphonic 
writing,  which  they  showed  by  introducing  into  their  suites 
certain  movements  much  more  serious  in  style  and  exalted 
in  sentiment  than  dances.  The  English  and  French  Suites, 
so  called,  of  Bach,  and  the  Twelve  Harpsichord  Suites,  or 
"Lessons,"  as  they  were  called  in  England,  of  Handel, 
deserve  to  rank  among  the  great  masterpieces  of  musical  art. 

*  Handel,  though  he  lived  in  England,  was  in  his  music  a  German. 


THE  SUITE 


65 


U.     The  Suites  of  Bach. 

The  six  English  and  six  French  Suites  of  Bach,  which 
deserve  a  more  detailed  study  than  any  others,  consist 
generally  of  from  five  to  eight  separate  pieces  or  movements. 
The  first,  derived  from  the  severer  type  of  the  sonata  da 
chiesa,  and  thus,  more  remotely,  from  the  choral  madrigal 
and  canzona  (see  above),  is  always  more  intricate  and 
elaborate  than  the  others.  In  the  English  Suite  it  is  a  long 
contrapuntal  prelude,  with  imitations  and  sequences  such 
as  we  studied  in  the  invention  and  the  fugue.  In  the  French 
Suites  it  is  an  allemande,  less  elaborate  but  still  dignified 
and  impressive.  We  see  this  to  be  appropriate  when  we 
remember  that  the  hearer  is  best  able  to  follow  intricacies 
when  his  mind  is  fresh  and  unjaded. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  5. 
Bach:  Prelude  to  English  Suite,  No.  3,  in  G-Minor. 
The  Motives:   The  thematic  material  out  of  which  this 
prelude  is  developed  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  just  two 
motives,  which  we  will  call  (a)  and  (6). 

FIGURE  xvm. 

MOTIVES  OP  bach   PRELUDE  IN  G-MINOR 
Motive  (a)  (imitated  through  four  voices.) 


in  soprano.. 


i^S 


^ 


I 


I      I 

in  alto. 


■ftr 


jn 


r~i 


^ 


ih  bass. 


66 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


FIGURE  XVIII  —  Continued 
Motive  (fc)  (imitated  by  a  second  voice^  measures  33-36. 


^ 


i^^?i^ 


j     in  soprano. 


^m 


& 


mi 


w 


:a=3n 


in    alfn      ^T  -•- 


in  alto. 


Note  tlie  effective  contrast  between  the  bold,  assertive 
character  of  motive  (a)  and  the  more  graceful  character  of 

Structure:  The  prelude  divides  itself  into  seven  clearly 
marked  sections,  each  ended  by  a  well-marked  cadence. 
Let  us  examine  these  briefly  in  turn. 

Section  I,  measures  1-32,  key  of  G-minor:  Founded  on  motive  (a),  with  many 
sequences  which  the  reader  should  now  be  able  to  trace  for  himself. 

Section  II,  measures  33-66:  Begins  in  G-minor,  modulates  to  B-flat  major,  the 
"  relative  major."  Motive  (b)  in  soprano,  measures  33-34 ;  in  alto,  measures  35-36 ;  in 
bass,  measures  43-44.     Motive  (a),  measures  35,  36,  37  (alto),  38,  39,  43,  44,  53,  54,  etc. 

Section  III,  measures  67-98,  key  of  B-flat;  An  almost  exact  copy  of  Section  I,  in  a 
different  key. 

Section  IV,  measures  99-124:  Begins  in  B-flat  major,  modulates  to  D-minor,  the 
"dominant"  of  the  original  key.  Both  motives  tossed  about  from  voice  to  voice.  (The 
reader  should  locate  each  instance  for  himself.) 

Section  V,  measures  125-160:  Begins  in  D-minor,  modulates  to  E-flat  major,  thus 
giving  variety  of  key  in  the  middle  part  of  the  composition,  which  we  begin  to  see  is  an 
important  principle  of  form.  (Compare  the  Gavotte  of  the  last  chapter.)  Very  similar  in 
treatment  to  Section  II. 

Section  VI,  measures  161-179:  Modulates  back  from  E-flat  major  to  the  home  key, 
thus  preparing  the  way  for  the  final  statements  and  conclusion.  In  measures  175-178 
the  insistence  of  the  bass  on  the  tone  D,  the  "dominant"  of  the  original  key,  will  be 
noticed.  Such  an  insistence  on  one  tone  is  called  a  "pedal  point,"  because  so  frequently 
found  in  the  pedal  part  of  organ  music,  and  serves  admirably  here  to  prepare  the  mind 
for  the  triiunphant  return  to  G-rainor  in  the  final  section.  The  rest  of  Section  VI  is  made 
up  of  sequences,  thus:  162-1G5,  lGu-169,  170-17o;  and  then,  173, 174, 175,  176, 177, 178. 

Section  VII,  measures  180-213:  Almost  entirely  in  the  home-key,  thus  emphasizmg 
the  sense  of  finality.  The  bulk  of  this  section  is  furthermore  identical  with  Section  I 
ttius  affording  a  fine  example  of  the  principle  of  restatement  after  contrast. 


THE  SUITE  67 

Altogether  this  is  a  most  interesting  movement.  In 
the  great  effect  made  with  simple  means  we  recognize  again, 
as  we  did  in  the  case  of  the  invention  and  the  fugue,  the  splen- 
did power  of  Bach's  mind.  The  principles  of  imitation  of 
motives  from  voice  to  voice,  of  transpositions  of  a  single 
motive  in  a  single  voice  giving  rise  to  the  many  sequences, 
and  of  restatement  after  contrast,  all  discussed  in  the  first 
chapter,  are  illustrated  more  brilliantly  than  by  any 
other  composition  we  have  thus  far  examined.  Finally, 
in  the  variety  of  key  of  Section  V,  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  piece,  and  in  the  unity  of  key  of  the  first  and  last 
sections,  we  get  a  striking  anticipation  of  a  principle  of 
construction  which  we  shall  later  see  to  be  at  the  root  of  the 
most  important  of  modern  forms,  the  sonata-form. 

After  listening  to  such  a  movement  as  this  we  naturally 
wish  to  relax  a  little;  and  we  are,  therefore,  pleased  to  hear 
a  seiies  of  dances  of  various  rhythms  and  qualities  of  expres- 
sion, cast  in  simple  "binary"  or  "ternary"  forms,  and  either 
frankly  homophonic  in  style  or  not  too  elaborately  poly- 
phonic. It  is  impossible  to  describe  in  detail  here  all  the 
dances  found  in  suites,  l)ut  the  table  on  page  68  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  more  important  ones. 

The  gavotte  studied  m  the  preceding  chapter  gives  an 
excellent  general  impression  of  the  livelier  dances  used, 
which  may  be  farther  defined  by  a  glance  at  such  typical 
pieces  as  the  bourrees  of  the  first  and  second  English  Suites, 
and  the  gavottes  of  the  third  English  and  fifth  French 
Suites.  There  is  generally  also  to  be  found  in  Bach's 
suites,  introduced  for  the  sake  of  contrast  and  in  order  to 


68 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


represent  the  more  emotional  side  of  musical  expression,  a 
sarabande  or  other  such  slow,  stately,  and  sometimes  truly 
noble  movement.  Let  us  take,  as  an  example  of  this 
element,  the  Sarabande  from  the  second  English  Suite. 

FIGURE  XIX.— THE  CHIEF  DANCES  USED  IN  SUITES 


NAME 

ORIGIN 

METER 

FORM 

CHARACTER 

Allemande 

German 

4-4 

Usually  "binary" 

Brisk,  fluent. 

Courante 

French 

3-2  or  3-^ 

"       "binary" 

Merry,  energetic. 

Sarabande 

Spanish 

3-2,3-^ 

"        "binary" 

Stately,  serious,  sometimes  noble. 

Bourrfe 

French 

4^,  2-4 

"       "ternary" 

lively. 

Gavotte 

French 

4-4 

"       "ternary" 

Moderately  quick,  well-marked. 

Minuet 

French 

3-8,  3-4 

"       "ternary" 

Well-regulated  gaiety,  courtly. 

Passepied 

French 

3^ 

Animated,  brisk. 

Loure 

Old  French 

6-4 

Slow,  stately. 

Anglaise 

French 

2-4 

Lively,  energetic. 

Polonaise 

Polish 

3-4 

Dignified,  but  animated. 

Pavane 

PVench 

2-4 

Stately. 

Rigaudon 

French 

2-4,4-4 

Very  lively,  gay. 

Gigue 

Doubtful 

6-8,  12-8 

"      "binary" 

Very  rollicking  and  merry. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  6. 
Bach:  Sarabande  in  A-Minor  from  English  Suite  II 

The  melodic  germ  from  which  the  piece  is  developed  is 
the  following  very  serious  and  earnest  phrase. 

FIGURE  XX.— THEME  OF  BACH  SARABANDE 

Attdante  sostenuto. 


in  soprano. 


O^ 


9* 


-^ 


^ 


in  bass. 


a  phrase  in  which  great  depth  of  almost  tragic  feeling  is 
expressed.     Against  this  is  set,  for  the  sake  of  relief,  the 


THE   SUITE  69 

lighter  and  more  suave  melody  of  measures  5  and  6, 
treated  in  freely  sequential  fashion.  The  whole  sarabande 
is  built  from  these  two  brief  melodic  figures. 

This  sarabande  serves  as  an  admirable  illustration  of 
the  type  of  beauty  common  in  the  music  of  Bach.  Its 
phraseology,  if  we  may  use  the  term,  is  quite  different  from 
that  in  use  in  the  music  of  to-day;  it  is  full  of  quaint  and 
archaic  turns  of  musical  speech  —  formal  sequences,  little 
motives  that  sound  to  us  almost  mechanical.  It  is  like  an 
etching  of  Diirer's,  full  of  detail,  each  line  carefully  drawn, 
and  the  whole  picture  instinct  with  iife.  Thus  its  type  of 
beauty  differs  so  materially  from  that  to  which  we  are 
accustomed  that  it  often  fails  in  its  appeal.  Only  by  using 
our  imagination  are  we  able  to  project  ourselves,  so  to 
speak,  into  another  milieu,  another  time,  another  point  of 
view.  And  this  is  the  test  with  which  any  archaic  work  of 
art  confronts  us.  Without  imagination  in  the  beholder  a 
picture  by  Botticelli,  for  example,  is  a  curiosity  rather  than 
a  work  of  art.  Its  strange  allegory,  its  quaint  idea  of  land- 
scape, its  figures  with  their  unusual  posing  —  all  these  are 
beautiful  or  merely  curious  according  as  we  look  at  them. 
"Beauty  is  in  the  eye  of  the  beholder." 

The  repetition  at  a  higher  pitch  of  the  main  motive  in 
measures  3-4  is  highly  poignant;  and  throughout  the  expres- 
sion is  intensified  by  the  use  of  rich  and  often  complex 
harmony,  as  particularly  in  the  last  four  measures  of  all. 

Notwithstanding  the  earnest  and  impassioned  character 
of  this  sarabande,  its  derivation  from  the  dance  is  clearly 
revealed  in  the  regularity  of  the  balance  of  phrases  consist- 


70  THE  APPREOIATION  OF  MUSIC 

ing  of  equal  measure  groups,  which  divide  up  as  follows. 
2,  2,  4,  4  (double  bar);  2,  2,  4,  2,  2,  4.  The  symmetry  is 
much  more  precise  than  in  an  invention  or  a  fugue. 

The  form  is  binary  or  two-part.  Part  one,  measures 
1-12,  begins  in  A-minor  and  ends  in  the  "relative  major," 
the  key  of  C.  Part  two,  measures  13-28,  begins  (with  the 
original  motive)  in  C-major,  and  returns  to  A-minor. 

The  sequence  of  measures  23-24,  with  measures  21-22, 
is  very  beautiful  and  deserves  special  notice. 

Following  the  sarabande  the  reader  will  observe  a  more 
florid  version  of  it,  bearing  the  caption,  "Les  agrements  de 
la  meme  Sarabande"  —  "Ornaments  for  the  same  Sara- 
bande." This  is  an  example  of  the  practice,  common  in 
Bach's  day,  of  weaving  a  net-work  of  grace-notes,  trills,  and 
other  decorations  about  a  melody,  a  practice  due  in  part  to 
the  natural  fondness  of  all  musicians  for  "effect,"  and  in 
part  to  the  fact  that  the  instruments  of  that  day  were  so 
small  and  poor  that  a  tone  could  only  be  sustained  by  being 
struck  many  times.  This  custom  of  ornamenting  melodies 
with  all  manner  of  embroidery  gave  rise  to  the  "theme  and 
variations,"  a  form  which  we  shall  study  later. 

All  the  other  English  Suites  of  Bach  contain  very  beau- 
tiful sarabandes;  those  in  the  French  Suites  are  less  inter- 
esting, though  the  first  contains  a  fine  example. 

All  of  Bach's  tw^elve  suites  end  with  gay  and  vigorous 
gigues,  the  most  rollicking  of  all  the  dances  used.  This  is 
natural  enough,  in  view  of  the  desirability  of  closing  the 
suite  with  an  impression  of  energetic  vitality.  These  gigues 
are  in  the  headlong  6-8  or  12-8  meter;  they  are  polyphonic 


THE  SUITE 


n 


in  texture,  and  constructed  in  the  binary  form.  Often- 
times a  high  degree  of  contrapuntal  skill  is  shown  in  their 
composition,  but  usually  this  does  not  interfere  with  their 
light  and  almost  careless  character.  A  curious  feature  of 
most  of  them  is  that  in  the  second  half  the  motive  is  inverted 
or  turned  upside  down. 

EXL\MPLE    FOR    ANALYSIS,    No.    7. 

Bach:  Gigue,  from  French  Suite  IV,  in  E-Flat. 
The  gay  little  theme  is  composed  of   two   motives,   as 
indicated  in  Figure  XXI,  in  which  the  long  brackets  show 
the  theme  and  its  imitation  by  the  second  voice  to  enter, 

FIGUKE  XXI. 
Theme  of  Gigue,  Bach's  French  Suite  IV,  and  its  Inversion. 


Allegro  vivace. 


rrnr 


\~b       \\~b~^ 


Theme  in  soprano. 

4 


^:S^ffi 


S^ 


^ 


=F=^ 


^'r  'r  ''^j 


SLJ.  LU 


Theme  in  alto. 


Inversion  of  theme,  b^;inning  of  second  half. 


and  the  short  brackets  show  its  component  motives,  of 
contrasting  character.  In  measures  5  and  6  the  theme 
is  again  imitated  by  the  third  voice  (left  hand  part).     In 


72  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

the  course  of  the  development  a  still  more  lively  figure 
makes  its  appearance  in  measures  19,  23,  24  and  25. 

The  now  familiar  sequences  are  found  at  every 
turn.  The  form  is  binary  (Part  I,  measures  1-26; 
Part  II,  measures  27-60).  The  inversion  of  the  theme, 
shown  in  Figure  XXI,  makes  the  subject  of  the  second  half. 
The  key-system  is  perfectly  simple.  Part  I  modulates  from 
the  tonic,  E-flat,  to  the  dominant,  B-flat;  Part  II  begins 
there  and  returns  to  the  home-key. 

III.     The  Historic  Importance  of  the  Suite. 

In  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  suite  gradu- 
ally waned  in  popularity,  and  gave  place  to  the  more  highly 
organic  sonata.  Modern  suites,  notable  among  which  are 
such  delightful  works  as  Bizet's  '*L'Arlesienne,"  Grieg's 
"Peer  Gynt,"  Dvorak's  Suite  for  small  orchestra,  opus.  39, 
Tschaikowsky's  "Nut-Cracker  Suite,"  and  Brahms's  "Sere- 
nades" for  orchestra,  are,  after  all,  exceptional  and  infre- 
quent, and  not  the  inevitable  mould  in  which  th„  composer 
casts  his  ideas. 

But  the  historical  importance  of  the  suite  was  great,  and 
it  fell  into  disuse  only  after  its  lessons  had  been  thoroughly 
learned.  Through  it  musicians  developed  the  dance  ele- 
ment which  must  always  be  one  of  the  two  main  strands 
of  all  music;  through  it  they  learned  to  substitute  for  the 
ancient  polyphonic  style  which  is  suitable  to  voices  the 
homophonic  style  best  adapted  to  the  capacities  and 
the  limitations  of  instruments;  and  through  it  they  became 
familiar  with  those  simple  binary  and  ternary  forms  in  which 


THE  SUITE  7S 

such  Instrumental  music  is  most  conveniently  and  effectively 
cast. 

Thus  the  suite  formed  the  bridge  between,  on  the  one 
hand,  (a)  crude  folk-songs,  (6)  primitive  dances,  and  (c) 
strict  polyphonic  forms  such  as  the  invention  and  the  fugue, 
and'  on  the  other,  the  sonatas,  quartets,  concertos,  and 
symphonies  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven. 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 
Dickinson  :     "  The    Study  of  the  History  of  Musicy*' 
Chapters  XIII  and  XIV.    Parry  :  "  Evolution  of  the  Art 
of  Music"    Chapters  VIII   and  IX  ;  Mason  :  **  Beethoven 
and  His  Forerunners y"  Chapter  IV. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  RONDO. 

The  study  of  the  suite  contained  in  the  last 
chapter  has  brought  us  for  the  first  time  into  contact  with 
a  cyclic  form.  We  have  seen  that,  as  instruments 
developed,  as  the  technique  of  playing  them  advanced, 
and  as  the  themes  and  their  harmonies  became  more  plastic, 
composers  naturally  sought  some  larger  plan  than  that 
afforded  by  a  single  dance  form;  they  thus  arrived  at  the 
suite.  But  the  suite  was  inclined  to  be  monotonous.  The 
same  key  was  used  for  all  the  separate  movements,  there 
was  an  almost  invariable  stated  length  for  each,  and  the 
rhythms  were  too  insistent  to  admit  of  great  variety  of 
expression.  So  composers  began  to  experiment  with  other 
forms,  chief  among  which  was  the  sonata.* 

Through  all  the  rest  of  this  book  we  shall  be  dealing 
directly  or  indirectly  with  the  musical  forms  that  go  to 
make  up  the  complete  sonata.  In  the  present  chapter  we 
shall  deal  with  one  of  its  simplest  and  most  primitive  types 
of  structure,  the  rondo. 

Sonatas  were  written  as  far  back  as  the  seventeenth 
century.  Kuhnau's  celebrated  "Bible  Sonatas,"  crude 
attempts     at    program    music,     are    among     the    notable 

*  Sonata,  originally  from  Italian  "Suonare,"  to  sound,  as  Cantata  was  from  Italian 
"Cantare,"  to  sing.  Later  the  word  Sonata  took  on  a  more  precise  meaning,  which  w» 
shall  study  in  later  chapters. 

74 


TEE   RONDO  76 

examples  of  primitive  sonatas.  These  were  indeed  "  sound- 
pieces,"  but  their  resemblance  to  a  real  sonata,  as  we  under- 
stand the  term,  is  slight.  Bach  and  Handel  each  wrote 
sonatas;  and  some  of  Bach's  are  masterly  examples  of 
the  then  prevailing  style.  His  sonata  for  violin  and  piano 
in  F-minor  (number  V  in  Peters'  edition)  may  be  studied 
as  an  example  of  the  form.  It  contains  four  movements, 
the  first,  second,  and  fourth  of  which  are  purely  polyphonic, 
the  third  being  one  of  those  beautiful  meditative  pieces 
of  a  somewhat  rhapsodical  style  in  which  Bach  seems 
to  have  specially  delighted.  Italian  contemporaries  of 
Bach  also  wrote  sonatas,  and  some  of  those  by  D.  Scarlatti 
(1683-1757)  and  A.  Corelli  (1653-1713)  were  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  development  of  the  form.  All  these 
early  specimens,  however,  were  either  vague  and  indetermi- 
nate in  form,  or  were  hampered  in  their  expression  by  the 
old  polyphonic  methods.  The  modern  sonata  first  begins 
to  emerge  in  the  work  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  son  of  John 
Sebastian,  and  his  compositions  in  this  style  will  be  the 
subject  of  a  later  chapter. 

I.     Derivation  of  the  Rondo. 

Our  investigations  into  the  formal  element  of  early 
dance  music  have  thus  far  revealed  two  plans,  "binary" 
and  "ternary,"  i.  e.,  two-part  and  three-part.  For  such 
short  pieces  as  the  inventions  of  Bach,  and  for  many  of 
the  separate  dances  in  suites,  the  two-part  form  was 
adequate,  but  when  instrumental  music  began  to  develop 


76 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


on  broader  lines,  so  that  each  of  the  halves  was  extended 
to  a  considerable  length,  the  advantage  of  the  three-part 
form  with  its  "restatement  after  contrast"  was  readily 
perceived,  and  it  came  to  be  frequently  used. 

Among  the  early  experiments  in  form  we  find  a  kind 
of  extension  of  ternary  form  by  the  repetition  of  its  separate 
parts.  Such  pieces  sometimes  consist  of  but  one  stable 
phrase  (A)  with  alternating  phrases  of  an  indefinite 
character,  while  others  alternate  two  set  phrases,  as:  A,  B, 
A,  B,  A,  B,  A,  etc.  The  one  fixed  principle  in  these  pieces 
seems  to  be  that  they  should  end  with  the  phrase  with 
which  they  began.  In  primitive  songs  this  fixed  part 
constituted  the  chorus,  with  which  the  solo  melody  alter- 
nated, having,   of  course,   different  words  for  each  verse. 


FIGURE   XXII. 


NOUEL  DE  LAS   FLOUS.       (CAROL  OF  THE  FLOWERS) 

Rather  slow.  " 


t 


-As  i^^      I     J  J  I    J        'I 


^m 


e=F^ 


t 


^=^ 


-^-J- 


^ 


2- 


M 


i^B 


^ — p — ^ 


i 


i5 


^ 


^ 


^ 


-p-= — • — ^- 

^ — ^— T 


Fine. 


■n^ 


^ 


THE   RONDO 


77 


|-_S ^ 


-A N- 


t 


3=« 


g 


=S==^= 


D.C 


^^^=1=^- 


Come  with  us,  sweet  flowers,  and  worship  Christ  the  Lord, 
Let  your  perfumes  hover  round  the  Babe  adored. 

1st  &  2nd  Sopranos. 

1,  Modest  violet,  hiding  in  the  grassy  shade. 
Thou  canst  say  how  humble  He  for  us  is  iL<ade. 

Chorus. 

Come  with  us,  &c.  (D.C.) 

2.  Lily  fair,  low  bending  in  the  sun's  warm  light. 
Thou  dost  tell  that  He  is  pure  as  thou  art  white. 
Come  with  us,  &c. 

8.    As  thou.  Pansy,  shinest  forth  in  bright  array. 
So  doth  He  His  majesty  to  man  display. 
Come  with  us,  &c. 

4.    As  thou,  Rose,  wide-opening  dost  thy  scent  impart, 
So  His  love  expanding,  draws  each  sinful  heart. 
Come  with  us,  &c. 

"The  question  is  sometimes  raised  whether  in  the 
primitive  carol  the  chorus  began,  or  whether,  as  in  many 
of  our  own  popular  songs,  it  waited  until  the  end  of  the 
first  solo  verse.  Probably  the  former  is  of  the  greater 
antiquity;  in  any  case,  it  is  from  it  that  the  rondo* 
is  derived."  — Hadow,  "Sonata  Form." 

*  The  name  "Rondo"  (Fr.  "Rondeau")  is  derived  from  "round,"  and  its  application 
to  pieces  of  the  type  we  are  considering  was  due  to  the  constant  recurrence  of  one  principal 
melody. 


78  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

An  example  of  this  primitive  type  of  carol  will  be  found 
in  Figure  XXII. 

This  is  an  ancient  carol  from  the  old  province  of 
Bas-Quercy  (now  Lot-et-Garonne)  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  France. 

The  obvious  weakness  of  this  form,  when  applied  to 
instrumental  music,  is  its  monotony.  One  would  soon 
weary  of  a  bald  repetition  over  and  over  again  of  two  phrases 
or  two  melodies  to  which  no  variety  was  imparted,  such 
as  the  change  of  words  supplies  in  the  foregoing  carol. 
In  order  to  avoid  this  disadvantage  the  natural  step  to 
take  would  be  to  impart,  by  some  means  or  other,  variety 
to  the  music;  and  this  was  soon  perceived  by  composers. 
The  idea  of  a  fixed  part  remained,  i.  e.,  the  chief  musical 
idea  was  retained  in  its  original  form,  but  the  secondary 
melodies  were  varied.  Once  this  change  had  taken  place 
the  rondo  became  a  frequent  medium  of  musical  expression. 
Specimens  of  the  early  rondo  may  be  found  in  Purcell's 
song,  "I  Attempt  from  Love's  Sickness  to  Fly,"  and 
in  Bach's,  "Passepied  en  Rondeau,"  from  the  fifth 
English  Suite.  The  formula  for  these  two  pieces  is 
A,  B,  A,  C,  A. 

Another  interesting  point  is  the  plan  of  the  harmony 
of  the  contrasting  sections  in  the  rondo.  The  first  of  these 
(B)  would  naturally  follow  the  prevailing  custom  for 
"sections  of  contrast,"  and  be  in  the  dominant,  or,  if  the 
piece  were  in  minor,  in  the  relative  major  (see  Chapter  II.); 
but  the  second  (C)  offered  a  further  means  of  variety, 
and  the  instinct  of  composers  led  them  to  treat  it  in  a  free 


THE   RONDO  79 

manner  and  not  confine  it  to  any  one  key.  Each  of  the 
examples  of  rondo  form  referred  to  above  adopts  this 
method  of  procedure. 

While  this  early  form  of  the  rondo  possessed  a  certain 
charm,  it  was  somewhat  rigid  in  effect,  since  the  various 
sections  were  separated  from  each  other  by  a  full  close  or 
complete  pause.  They  were  like  little  blocks  that  fitted 
together  into  a  definite,  if  somewhat  stiff  pattern. 


II.     A  Rondo  by  Couperin. 

The  primitive  rondo  was  chiefly  cultivated  by  the 
French  harpsichord  composers  of  the  early  eighteenth 
century,  of  whom  Couperin  (1668-1733)  and  Rameau 
(1683-1764)  were  the  most  distinguished.  Reference  has 
been  made  in  our  chapter  on  "The  Suite"  to  the  "Ordres" 
of  these  composers,  and  to  the  perfecting,  at  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  of  the  instrument  for  which  they 
were  written,  the  harpsichord.  The  strings  of  the  harpsi- 
chord were  not  struck  by  hammers,  as  in  the  modern 
pianoforte,  but  plucked  by  quills,  as  the  strings  of  a  banjo 
are  plucked  by  the  fingers  of  the  player.  It  has  been  said 
of  the  harpsichord  that  it  produced  "a  scratch  with  a  tone 
at  the  end  of  it."  The  tone  produced  in  this  primitive 
way  was  weak  and  of  brief  duration,  so  that  composers 
not  only  had  to  keep  re-enforcing  a  tone  by  striking  it  again, 
as  in  the  trills  and  other  ornaments  so  characteristic  of 
their  music,  but  had  to  avoid  altogether  any  long  sustained 


80  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

passages  such  as  are  common  in  modern  music.  They 
had  also  to  substitute  for  the  polyphonic  style,  the  entire 
effectiveness  of  which  depends  upon  the  sustainment  of 
its  melodies,  a  homophonic  or  one-voiced  style  which, 
while  distinct  from  that  usual  in  modern  piano  music, 
was  historically  an   important  factor   in  its   development. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  8. 
Couperin:  "  Les  Moissonneurs  "  ("  The  Harvesters  "). 

This  naive  and  delightful  piece  is  a  good  example  of 
the  prevailing  style  of  French  domestic  music  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  is  notable  for  its  character  of 
elegance;  it  is  salon  music,  but  at  the  same  time  it  reveals 
a  certain  mimetic  quality  common  among  the  French. 
The  swing  of  its  rhythm  seems  to  catch  a  little  of  the  idea 
conveyed  by  the  title.  Couperin's  pieces  have  been  called 
*'a  sort  of  refined  ballet  music,"  and  they  are,  as  a  whole, 
based  on  well  defined  rhythmic  movement.  But  we  may 
trace  in  them  the  gradual  progress  away  from  dance  forms 
and  towards  a  freer  and  more  idealized  expression. 

Couperin  was  called  by  his  contemporaries  "Le  Grand," 
and  was  an  important  figure  in  the  musical  life  of  Paris 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  His  influence  extended 
beyond  France;  even  John  Sebastian  Bach  adopts  some 
of  his  methods  in  writing  his  French  suites. 

*'Les  Moissonneurs"  may  be  formally  tabulated  as 
follows: 


THE  RONDO 


81 


u 

9 

a 

Oi 

p 

0 

1-^ 

u 

■»j  » 

uM 

Z.  -tJ 

c3 

«5   « 

< 

?        § 

t-       -s     . 

«5  c.ti<3 

__<3-s!: 

a  ?3 

4>    ti 

Sto 

•S  i^"^ 

rs      a 

O         c8 

a 

S.p3    .a 

1     C                     ed 

o)  a           »4  tic 

'*■&  •-  fen  O    * 

Be 

tonic 
latinj 
min 
back 

a 

^  0*0 

■^08 

-< 

-i    "    - 

M    S    fl      . 

«     .2^ 

^   -*-> 

C  .^  ^j 

-§-S  2 

&«a 

a  's  V 

•  S     0     M 

C   3 

•2    eS 

o 

21  5 

■*  fa   K  -r"     • 

<»-43   >   ^-0 

a-^      a 

"4)    <U  4J 

S^    c3 

J      D 

<5 

«5  «  a    , 

^  a-°^ 

<!3-St^ 

V    b 

a.«3 

.sa^ 

P5 

10-14 
Modulat 
the      do 
and    e 
hereon. 

■i^  ■>-> 

2a.S 

.s-s    •- 

^Tj  >iir 

C   ?i   o 

<1 

9  >.>>43^-g> 

'^'S^-s    a 

M    .3          w    4)    " 

ti    .,    a>  -B  *-> 

I 

5  a     P5 

ea 

,4 

V 

& 

;^ 

H 

-a 

.3 


22  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

An  examination  of  this  rondo  will  reveal  that  the 
subsidiary  portions  —  B.  C.  and  D. —  are  episodes  rather 
than  distinct  themes.  Their  melodies,  instead  of  being 
entirely  new  as  in  the  more  highly  developed  rondos  of 
Haydn  and  Mozart,  are  either  literal  copies  of  the  chiel 
melody,  or  close  imitations  of  it,  in  related  keys;  so  that 
the  chief  variety  imparted  by  them  is  a  variety  of  harmony. 
The  plan  of  these  harmonies  should  be  carefully  noted, 
particularly  the  use  of  the  home  key  in  the  section  marked 
D.  This  method  of  unifying  a  melody  or  a  whole  piece, 
by  coming  back  to  the  original  key  at  the  end,  embodying 
as  it  does  an  important  aesthetic  principle,  has  been  pointed 
out  several  times  already.  We  may  say,  then,  that  the 
structure  of  this  piece  is  "harmonic"  rather  than  "them- 
atic." In  all  instrumental  music  of  any  consequence  this 
harmonic  element  is  of  great  importance. 

The  use  of  the  word  "Couplet"  to  describe  the  episodes 
seems  to  indicate  the  derivation  of  these  rondos  from  the 
old  song  and  chorus  like  the  "Carol  of  the  Flowers."  In 
fact,  one  gets  from  this  piece  a  decided  impression  as  of 
a  fixed  ^  part  in  somewhat  rigid  form,  and  with  comparar 
tively  full  "harmonies,"  alternating  with  verses  (couplets) 
in  which  the  right  hand  plays,  as  it  were,  a  solo  melody 
against  an  unobstrusive  accompaniment. 

*  The  fixed  part  (A)  in  the  Rondo  of  this  period  usually  entered  but  three  times  instead 
of  four  as  is  the  case  liere.  Couperin's  "La  Bandoline"  (in  "Les  Maitres  du  Clavecin") 
is  another  example  of  cne  extended  form  of  the  Rondo. 


THE   RONDO  88 


III.     From  Couperin  to  Mozart. 

This  form  of  the  rondo  ^  persisted  until  the  time  of 
Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  our  next  example  for  analysis 
is  from  that  period.  During  the  century  that  elapsed 
between  Couperin  and  Mozart  the  piano  was  so  perfected 
as  to  displace  the  harpsichord.  The  invention  of  the 
damper  pedal  entirely  changed  the  style  of  writing  for 
the  piano,  and  the  necessity  for  filling  out  the  melody  with 
elaborate  ornamentation  no  longer  existed.  The  greater 
power  and  better  action  of  the  new  instruments  also  afforded 
composers  a  much  wider  scope. 

But  more  important  still,  during  this  century  Philip 
Emanuel  Bach  (1714-1788)  had  written  some  pianoforte 
works  that  advanced  the  art  into  a  new  realm.  In  the 
eighth  chapter  we  shall  study  one  of  his  pianoforte  sonatas, 
but  it  may  be  said  here  that  both  Haydn  and  Mozart  freely 
acknowledged  their  great  debt  to  him.  This  study  is 
postponed  for  the  moment  because  he  did  not  affect  the 
form  of  the  rondo. 

Franz  Josef  Haydn  (1732-1809),  who  spent  many 
years  as  Kapellmeister  to  Prince  Esterhazy  and  who,  in 
consequence,  lived  more  or  less  isolated  from  the  world, 
made  many  interesting  experiments  with  musical  forms. 
He  may  be  said  to  be  the  father  of  the  symphony  and 
the  string  quartet,  and  several  of  his  piano  sonatas  contain 

'  Pauer's  "AlteMeister"  (Breitkopf  and  Iliirtel)  contains  several  interesting  Rondeaus 
by  Couperin  and  Rameau.  "Les  Maitres  du  Clavecin,"  edited  by  Kohler  (Litolff), 
Vols.  X  and  XI,  may  also  be  consulted. 


^4 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


movements   that  are  obviously   attempts   at   creating  new 
forms  or  combining  old  ones  in  new  ways. 

His  ninth  ^  piano  sonata,  for  example,  has  for  its  finale 
a  curious  and  interesting  combination  of  the  rondo  and 
the  variation  form,  while  the  finale  to  the  third  sonata  is 
marked   "Tempo   di   Menuetto. "     Such    experiments    are 

FIGURE   XXIV. 

Molto  vivace.  ^ . 


i^ 


-^ — * 


-i»i- 


p  inno  centamente. 


^m 


:p=t: 


^— •— ^ 


4: 


/r 


-^ 


,|-^        f 


-^ — p- 


always  to  be  found  when  we  examine  the  work  of  creative 
minds. 

Haydn's   sonatas   thus   provide   us   with   a  link   in   the 
chain  that  binds  Mozart  to  his  predecessors.     The  foregoing 

^  The  numbers  referred  to  here  are  those  of  the  Schirmer  edition. 


THE  RONDO 


85 


quotation  from  Haydn's  second  sonata  will  illustrate  the 
primitive  nature  of  some  of  his  rondo  themes  (Figure  XXIV). 
This  theme  is,  in  effect,  a  jolly  dance  tune  without  pre- 
tensions to  dignity,  and  against  it  is  placed  a  conventional 
pattern  accompaniment. 

Another  rondo  theme  from  Haydn  may  be  cited  to  illus- 
trate his  gentle  humor. 


FIGURE   XXV. 


Allegro  assai. 


w 


^^ 


"^r~t;    1- 


&r5 


-^— H— -5—^ 


&^ 


:^=^=f: 


^ 


-^ U- 


«=f=^=^^ 


:p=n=f=^ 


=p=r 


ii 


This  has  for  its  first  episode,  or  secondary  theme,  the 
following  vividly  contrasting  passage: 


FIGURE   XXVI. 

tr  tr  tr 


tr 


86 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


These  two  quotations  illustrate  the  childlike  naivete 
of  Haydn's  nature.  He  is  never  tragic;  his  pieces  are 
like  delightful  pictures  of  rural  life  painted  by  an  artist 
who  was  himself  country  born  and  bred  and  who  feels 
the  natural  charm  of  the  simplest,  commonest  things. 
Haydn's  pictures  are  flooded  with  sunlight. 


IV.     A  Rondo  by  Mozart. 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  (1756-1791),  aside  from 
his  supreme  greatness  as  a  composer,  represents  the  cul- 
mination of  what  is  called  the  "Classical"  period.  The 
tendency  away  from  strict  polyphony  and  towards  a  free 
homophonic  style  has  already  been  noted.  It  was  the 
peasant-born  Haydn  who  first  subordinated  polyphony, 
producing  long  instrumental  pieces  based  on  song  melodies. 
His  symphonies  and  string  quartets  are  bubbling  over  with 
melodiousness.  Often  frankly  adopting  folk  tunes,  or  in- 
venting themes  in  the  same  style,  he  produced  great  works 
that  depend  hardly  at  all  on  the  interweaving  of  themes, 
but  have  as  their  basis  rather  the  exposition  of  single  melo- 
dies as  the  raison  d'etre  of  the  music.     Not  by  any  means 


THE  RONDO  87 

lacking  In  erudition,  Haydn  turns  to  naive  melody  as  his 
natural  means  of  expression. 

Along  with  this  element,  and  as  a  component  part  of 
what  we  call  "classic,"  is  that  perfection  of  form  and  style 
that  particularly  distinguishes  the  music  of  Mozart. 

*'His  works  are  often  cited  as  the  most  perfect  illus- 
trations of  the  classic  idea  in  music,  —  this  term  referring 
in  a  general  way  to  the  absence  of  individualism  in  con- 
formity to  a  general  type  of  style  and  form,  naivete  as 
opposed  to  self-consciousness,  symmetry  of  outline,  highest 
finish  of  detail,  purity  of  sound,  loftiness  and  serenity  of 
mood. "  —  Dickinson,  "The  Study  of  the  History  of  Music. " 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  9. 
Mozart :  Rondo  from  Piano  Sonata  in  B-flat  major. 

This  rondo  is  the  last  of  the  three  movements  of  this 
characteristic  sonata.  Mozart's  piano  sonatas  seldom  have 
more  than  three  movements,  and  of  these  the  rondo  is 
last,  the  plan  being  to  present  the  more  highly  organized 
movements  first,  and  to  end,  as  in  the  suite,  with  a  bright 
and  cheerful  piece.  The  rondos  of  this  period  were,  lively 
and  rhythmically  energetic.  While  not  essentially  dance- 
like, they  nevertheless  were  ultimately  derived  from  the 
dance,  and  lacked  the  meditative  and  sentimental  qualities 
to  be  found  in  slow  movements.  It  is  from  one  of  these 
two  sources  —  the  dance  tune  and  the  folk-song  —  that 
all  these  sonata  movements  sprang.  Contributory  streams 
entered  here  and  there  —  the  polyphonic  influence  is  dis- 
cernible;   Italian    opera    lends    its    fluent   vocal   style    and 


88  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

occasionally  its  love  of  display  in  elaborate  cadenzas;  and, 
of  course,  the  idiom  of  the  piano  —  the  peculiar  manner 
of  writing  that  the  instrument  requires  —  is  always  present. 

The  first  theme  of  this  movement,  for  example,  sug- 
gests motion;  one  can  almost  imagine  the  opening  section 
(measures  1-16)  as  suited  to  the  first  evolution  in  a  dance, 
and  the  second  (beginning  af  measure  16)  as  the  strain 
intended  for  a  new  set  of  dancers,  while  the  chords  in 
measure  17  quite  vividly  suggest  the  steps  of  a  dance. 
The  left  hand  part  is  largely  in  the  familiar  idiom  of  the 
piano  of  Mozart's  time,  though  there  is  occasionally  poly- 
phonic treatment  —  as  in  measures  1-8.  The  various 
divisions  of  the  piece  are  strongly  marked  by  cadences, 
sometimes  preceded  by  formal  patterns  of  scales,  or  other 
meaningless  passages,  as  at  144-147,  such  as  Wagner 
likened  to  *'the  clatter  of  dishes  at  a  royal  banquet.'* 
Sequences,  so  familiar  in  the  music  of  Bach,  frequently 
appear  here,  and  were,  indeed,  a  part  of  the  phraseology 
of  the  time.  The  passage  between  measures  189  and  193 
is,  in  this  respect,  especially  notable  because  of  the  harsh 
dissonance  between  E-flat  and  D  at  measure  191. 

The  cadenza  is  an  interesting  and  unusual  factor  in 
this  rondo.  A  cadenza  always  occurred  in  certain  types 
of  operatic  arias,  and  in  the  concerto  was  introduced  to 
display  the  skill  of  the  performer,  but  it  is  unusual  to  find 
one  in  a  rondo. 

This  rondo  flows  on  happily  from  beginning  to  end 
without  touching  either  great  heights  or  depths.  It  is  a 
good  example  of  a  style  of  piano  music  intended  more  for 


THE  RONDO 


89 


X     o 


<1 

173-224 

Free          treat- 
ment   of     chief 
theme,            and 
other     material : 
motive          from 
codetta       exten- 
sively           used 
(179-196);      ca- 
denza         (198); 
epilogue,           or 
coda  (213). 

S5 

148-172 

First    contrast- 
ing            theme 
now     in     tonic, 
and      with      an 
extended         co- 
detta. 

<1 

112-148 

Chief      theme 
as              before, 
but      extended. 

U 

64-111 

Second        con- 
trasting     theme 
in     two     parts ; 
1st    in    G-minor 
(64-75),   2nd  in 
E-flat          major 
(76-90).         This 
section     is     con- 
cluded      by      a 
passage      in     C- 
minor          based 
on              motive 
from             chief 
theme,             and 
by      a       codetta 
(105-111)      simi- 
lar to  that  in  B. 

-< 

41-64 

Chief     theme 
as     before,    but 
modulating  (62) 
to    the     relative 
minor. 

aq 

24-40 

First    contrast- 
ing             theme 
in        dominant. 
Measures       36- 
40  constitute     a 
codetta    to   this 
section. 

<r5 

1-24 

Chief      theme 
in    two    sections 
(1-8  and   9-24), 
the   last  slightly 
extended. 

90  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

the  domestic  circle  than  for  the  concert  room.  It  shows  that 
"absence  of  individualism  in  conformity  to  a  general  type 
of  style  and  form"  referred  to  by  Dickinson,  i.e.,  one  does 
not  feel  in  listening  to  it  the  obtrusion  of  a  personal  point 
of  view;  there  are  no  idiosyncracies  such  as  are  continually 
appearing  in  more  modern  music.  There  is  here  also 
that  "purity  of  sound"  that  characterises  Mozart's  music. 
There  are  no  elisions,  no  subtleties  of  musical  language, 
no  suggested  meanings  such  as  one  finds,  for  example, 
in  Schumann.  There  is  the  same  placidity,  the  same 
clearness  of  meaning,  the  same  lucidity  of  diction  that 
we  find  in  the  poetry  of  Mozart's  day.  Musical  language 
was  not  then  overlaid  with  secondary  significance  as  it 
has  since  become. 

An  examination  of  Figure  XXVII  will  reveal  a  con- 
siderable advance  in  this  rondo  over  that  of  Couperin. 
The  last  section  (A)  in  particular  fulfills  its  office  of  pro- 
viding, as  it  were,  a  kind  of  denouement  to  the  whole  piece; 
the  interest  is  skillfully  made  to  center  or  come  to  a  climax 
here,  and  the  stiff  angularity  that  characterises  the  older 
rondo  is  conspicuously  absent.  And  while  the  scheme  of 
harmonies  in  this  rondo  has  many  elements  in  common 
with  that  of  "Les  Moissonneurs, "  there  are  here  excur- 
sions, by  the  way,  into  other  keys  giving  variety  and  warmth 
of  color.  But,  most  important  of  all,  the  recurrence  of  the 
first  contrasting  theme  (at  measure  148)  in  the  tonic  key 
after  having  first  appeared  in  the  dominant  (measure  24) 
gives  to  this  piece  a  real  strength,  or  stoutness  of  construc- 
tion.    It  is  as   though   there  were  certain  strands  in  the 


THE   RONDO  91 

fabric  that  run  entirely  through  it  and  make  it  firm,  whereas 
the  Couperin  rondo  seems  to  be  made  by  putting  together 
a  series  of  little  blocks. 

Another  important  point  of  contrast  between  these  two 
rondos  is  in  the  matter  of  themes.  Where  Couperin  has 
only  one,  which  he  presents  in  a  variety  of  charming  forms, 
but  from  which  little  that  is  new  is  evolved,  Mozart  has 
three  distinct  contrasting  themes,  and  a  little  codetta  motive; 
and  all  these  germinate,  even  if  but  slightly,  into  new 
musical  developments.  The  codetta  passage,  in  particular, 
sprouts  and  blossoms  (179-196)  in  a  most  delightful  man- 
ner, the  little  germ  having  first  appeared  (36)  as  an 
unpromising  and  monotonous   succession  of  single   notes. 

We  referred  at  some  length,  in  the  chapter  on  '*  The 
Dance  and  Its  Development,"  to  this  germination  of  musical 
thought  as  of  the  greatest  importance  in  composition.  The 
reader  will  readily  understand  that  the  highest  form  of  an 
art  like  music,  in  which  the  element  of  time  enters  as  a 
vital  matter  —  in  which  the  message  of  the  composer  comes 
to  us  in  successive  sounds  —  must  depend  on  something 
more  than  the  beauty  of  its  several  and  successive  melodies. 
In  the  first  place,  the  limit  of  such  a  succession  would  soon 
be  reached;  the  mind,  after  having  taken  in  a  certain  num- 
ber of  melodies,  would  lose  track  of  the  first  ones  and  be 
left  in  utter  confusion.  The  obvious  device  of  repeating 
the  first  phrase  or  melody  at  the  point  where,  otherwise, 
this  confusion  would  result,  has  been  the  determining 
motive  of  many  of  the  simple  forms  we  have  thus  far  studied. 
But  this,  after  all,  is  a  primitive  method,  and  it  is  obviou? 


92  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

that  its  possibilities  are  limited.     The  rondo  is,  in  effect> 
the  furthest  point  to  which  this  plan  can  go. 

The  fundamental  quality  in  anything  living  —  be  it 
the  state,  the  church,  the  family  or  the  human  body  —  is 
organism,  the  relation  of  all  the  parts  to  the  whole.  So  in 
the  greatest  music  as  in  the  greatest  literature,  everything 
germinates  from  certain  fundamental  ideas,  and  nothing  is 
extraneous.  This  rondo  of  Mozart  represents  a  certain 
tendency  of  his  to  string  beautiful  melodies  together  —  for 
his  fund  of  melodies  was  well  nigh  inexhaustible.  But 
he  was  too  great  a  master  not  to  see  the  weakness  of  such  a 
procedure,  and  in  works  like  his  G-minor  symphony  he 
has  left*  nearly  perfect  examples  of  this  higher  form  of 
musical  development;  —  perfect,  that  is,  within  his  own 
horizon  —  a  wider  view  was  to  unfold  itself  from  that 
height  to  which  Beethoven  finally  struggled. 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

Parry:  *'  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music, "  pp.  52 
and  241.  Dickinson:  "  The  Study  of  the  History  of  Music , " 
Chapter  XIV.  Goetschius:  *'  The  Homophonic  Forms  of 
Musical  Composition,'*  p.  203.  Mason:  '^Beethoven  and 
His  Forerunners,*'  Chapter  IV.  Hadow:  ^' Sonata  Form,"* 
Chapter  IX. 

List  of  Supplementary  Pieces  for  Study. 

Haydn:  Finale  of  Sonata  in  D -major.  No.  7  (Schirmer 
Ed.).  Finale  of  Sonata  in  D -major.  No.  9  {Schirmer  Ed.). 
Mozart:  Finale  of  Sonata  in  F -major.  No.  17  (Schirmer  Ed.), 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  VARIATION  FORM  — THE  MINUET. 

The  process  of  musical  development  we  have  been 
considering  in  previous  chapters  has  tended  gradually  but 
surely  towards  freedom  of  expression  and,  at  the  same 
time,  definiteness  of  form.  As  this  process  has  advanced, 
melodies  have  become  less  and  less  constrained,  yet  the 
forms  themselves  have  crystallized  into  certain  accepted 
types.  The  ideal  of  all  this  progress  was  unity  and  variety; 
in  other  words,  composers  felt  the  desire  to  expand  their 
powers  of  expression  and  saw  that  this  expansion  must  in 
the  nature  of  things  conform  to  certain  aesthetic  principles 
and  obey  certain  laws.  Mere  luxuriance  of  speech  without 
order  or  system  means  confusion;  but  order  and  system 
without  living  feeling  means  aridity.  These  two  elements 
must  go  hand  in  hand,  and  in  the  music  of  masters  like 
Bach,  Beethoven,  and  Brahms  they  do. 

The  so-called  variation  form  admirably  illustrates 
these  tendencies.  From  its  very  beginning  down  to  the 
present  day  there  has  been  a  constant  re-adjustment  of 
its  expressiveness  and  its  formal  interest;  a  constant  attempt 
to  strike  the  right  balance  between  the  two  qualities.  The 
form  is  almost  as  old  as  music  itself.  From  the  earliest 
times  composers  have  felt  the  necessity  of  varying  their 
tunes  by  one  device  or  another.     Even  before  the  other 

93 


94  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

primitive  forms  had  crystallized,  crude  variations  existed, 
and  we  find  old  hymn  tunes  or  popular  songs  repeated  over 
and  over  again  with  elaborate  changes  of  phraseology  or 
with  contrapuntal  devices.  Certain  arid  processes  —  such 
as  writing  a  tune  backwards  —  were  sometimes  employed, 
and  a  study  of  the  whole  range  of  the  variation  form  in  its 
early  stages  reveals  a  constant  fluctuation. 

I.  Variations  by  John  Bull. 

Among  the  most  interesting  of  these  early  attempts 
to  solve  the  problem  are  certain  pieces  by  the  English 
composers  for  the  harpsichord  who  lived  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  John  Bull  (1563-1628),  a 
chorister  in  the  Chapel  Royal  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  these,  and  he  has  left  us  several 
pieces  in  variation  form,  one  of  which,  "Courante  Jewel,'* 
is  well  worth  our  attention. 

The  courante  (Fr.  courir,  to  run)  is  one  of  the  old 
dance  forms  that  became  imbedded  in  the  suite,  where  it 
followed  the  opening  *  Allemande.  This  particular  example 
of  the  courante  illustrates  the  habit,  common  at  that  time, 
of  writing  pieces  based  on  well  known  dance  rhythms  such 
as  we  have  studied  in  Chapters  IV  and  V.  Composers 
attempted  to  provide  further  interest  in  their  pieces  by 
giving  them  special  titles.  We  find,  for  example,  one  of 
Byrd's  harpsichord  pieces  called  "Galiardo,  Mrs.  Mary 
Brownlo, "  and  one  of  Bull's  entitled  "Pavana,  St.  Thomas 

*  Ifl  Bach's  English  Suites  a  Prelude  is  placed  before  the  Allemande 


THE   VARIATION   FORM 


96 


Wake."  This  tendency  in  English  music  towards  definite- 
ness  of  idea,  and  away  from  all  that  is  vague,  has  been 
already  noted  in  our  chapter  on  "Folk  Songs. " 

The  "Courante  Jewel"  is  an  interesting  example  of  a 
form  of  variation  that  has  now  become  practically  obsolete. 
It  consists  of  four  separate  melodies,  each  immediately 
followed  by  its  variation.  The  plan  might  be  expressed 
by  the  following  formula:  A,  a;  B,  b;  C,  c;  D,  d,  the  large 
letters  representing  the  themes  and  the  small  letters  the 
variations.     The  first  theme  begins  as  follows; 


FIGURE   XXVIII. 
From  first  theme  of  Bull's  "Courante  Jewel." 


Alleirro. 


r- 


¥ 


91: 


P  : 


.^*- 


i  i 


--U- 


The  complete  theme  is  sixteen  measures  long  and  is 
divided  off  into  phrases  of  regular  length.  This  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  the  variation,  the  corresponding  portiop 
of  which  will  be  found  in  Figure  XXIX. 


96 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


FIGURE  XXIX. 

Part  of  the  variation. 


i 


-m—ft 


^^ 


■#: 


J: 


i=^==i 


^^E^- 


9iS=g 


r 


r 


r 


i^ 


:SF=P"- 


U 


J 


i 


ii 


9t 


q=si=a9i 


-X-Ss^ 


In  Figure  XXX  are  shown  the  first  phrases  of  the 
second,  third  and  fourth  melodies,  in  order  that  the  reader 
may  see  how  distinct  is  each  one. 


riGURE  XXX. 


II. 


^ 


-• • •■ 


-f — •- 


III. 


I 


3: 


li=P= 


i 


IV. 


1 


I 


This  little  piece  illustrates  what  has  been  already  said 
about  freedom   of  expression.     It  does   not  impress  us  as 


THE   VARIATION   FORM 


97 


strictly  dance  music;  it  is  manifestly  TVTitten  for  its  own 
sake  and  represents  that  natural  tendency  to  create  some- 
thing beautiful  which  underlies  art  everywhere.  But  in 
respect  of  order  and  design  we  find  here  a  decided  weak- 
ness. Four  separate  and  successive  ideas,  each  followed 
by  an  elaboration  of  itself,  would  make  a  poor  model  for 
any  art.  One  feels  a  sense  of  vagueness  after  listening 
to  a  piece  so  constructed;  no  single  idea  dominates;  one 
longs  for  some  point  upon  which  the  attention  may  be 
centered. 

II.  A  Gavotte  and  Variations  by  Rameau. 

Pauer's  *'Alte  Meister,"  Vol.  I,  contains  another 
interesting  experiment  in  the  variation  form,  a  *' Gavotte 
and  Variations"  by  Rameau  (1683-1764).  The  opening 
phrase  of  this  Gavotte  runs  as  follows: 


FIGURE   XXXI. 

First  phrase  of  Gavotte  by  Rameau. 


■3=p: 


tt 


-l(S- 


n-i 


i^i 


m 


E 


f^ 


4: 


In  the  variation  of  the  above,  which  will  be  found  in 
Figure  XXXII,  the  theme  is  presented  less  definitely  than 
in  the  original,  while  the  upper  part  in  sixteenth  notes 
makes  a  kind  of  free  counterpoint. 


98 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


FIGURE   XXXII. 

Krst  phrase  of  Variation  by  Rameau. 


i 


/i 


E#E 


jfioco  marcato. 


7^ 


:iS 


r 


r 


-f- 


What  has  been  said  in  our  last  chapter  of  Couperin's 
harpsichord  pieces  applies  to  these  variations  of  Rameau. 
There  is  in  them  a  kind  of  refinement  and  delicacy  that 
characterises  all  the  French  music  of  that  period.  The 
theme  itself  is  less  naive  than  that  of  the  "Courante  Jewel," 
and  more  suggestive  of  the  slow  movement  themes  of  the 
sonatas  of  later  composers.  In  fact,  this  has  in  it  little  of 
the  real  Gavotte,  its  meditative  quality  is  too  strong  and  its 
rhythms  too  weak. 

These  two  compositions  admirably  illustrate  the  general 
striving  for  some  ordered  means  of  expression  in  secular 
music  that  characterises  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was 
a  time  of  groping.  Sacred  music  had  largely  occupied 
the  attention  of  composers,  and  few  paths  had  been  opened 
for  those  who  desired  other  means  of  expression,  so  that 
the  problem  of  secularization  was  the  all-important  one. 
It  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  that  this  particular  advance 
could  not  take  place  until  musical  instruments  and  the 
technique  of  playing  them  had  been  perfected.  As  late 
as  1571  Ammerbach's  "Orgel  oder  Instrument  Tabulatuj'" 


THE  VARIATION   FORM  99 

was  published,  forbidding  the  use  of  either  the  thumb  or 
little  finger  in  organ  playing,  and  writers  of  the  seventeenth 
century  speak  of  certain  uses  of  the  thumb  in  playing  as 
*'  daring  innovations. "  Couperin  in  his  "  L'Art  de  Toucher 
le  Clavecin, "  published  in  Paris  in  1717,  advocates  a  system 
of  fingering  that  still  uses  the  thumb  in  a  clumsy  manner, 
and  it  was  not  until  John  Sebastian  Bach's  method  of 
tuning  by  "equal  temperament"  and  his  new  system  of 
fingering  came  into  use  that  music  for  the  harpsichord  and 
clavichord  was  freed  from  the  old  incubus  of  an  awkward 
mechanical  technique.  For  it  is  obvious  that  an  art  can 
never  reach  anything  like  perfection  as  long  as  its  working 
materials  are  inadequate.  In  piano  playing,  for  example, 
one  could  not  use  chords  spread  out  far  beyond  the  grasp 
of  the  hands  until  the  sustaining  pedal  had  been  invented. 
While  these  conditions  existed,  composers  naturally  turned 
their  attention  to  sacred  music  and  to  the  opera,  where 
there  were  fewer  limitations. 

Among  the  many  examples  of  the  variation  form  pro- 
duced in  the  time  of  Couperin  and  Rameau  the  most 
important  are  those  of  Bach  and  Handel.  Since  w^e  are 
here  dealing  with  the  precursors  of  the  sonata  and  symphony 
and  with  the  development  of  homophonic  music,  we  shall 
not  discuss  Bach's  celebrated  "Goldberg  Variations,"  which 
are  masterly  examples  of  his  intricate  and  vivid  polyphony, 
but  shall  turn  to  a  set  of  variations  in  more  modern  form 
by  Handel.  The  reader  may,  however,  consult  the  second 
Sarabande  accompanying  Chapter  V  for  an  example  of 
Bach's  method  of  elaborating  a  given  theme. 


100  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

III.  Handel's  *'  Harmonious  Blacksmith.  '* 

Our  chapter  on  the  suite  has  given  the  order  in  which 
the  various  dances  usually  appeared,  and  mention  was 
there  made  of  the  exceptions  occasionally  to  be  found  among 
the  works  of  adventurous  composers. 

George  Frederic  Handel  (1685-1759)  composed  a  set 
of  "Suites  de  Pieces  pour  le  Clavecin"  containing  several 
movements  not  usually  found  in  the  suite  form.  Among 
these  are  "Allegros,"  "Prestos,"  and  "Arias  con  Varia- 
zioni, "  while  in  Handel's  "Sonatas"  are  to  be  found 
sarabandes,  gavottes,  and  bourrees.  In  other  words,  the 
suite  and  the  sonata,  as  conceived  by  Handel,  are  more 
or  less  convertible  forms;  it  is  not  until  the  next  genera- 
tion that  the  modern  sonata  begins  to  emerge  in  the  piano- 
forte works  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach.  (See  Chapter  VIII.) 
These  distinctive  pieces  represent  the  groping  of  composers 
after  some  new  and  more  flexible  medium  of  expression  than 
that  provided  by  stiff  dance  forms.  And  this  same  funda- 
mental principle  of  growth  is  what,  many  years  later,  led 
Beethoven  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  the  sonata,  and  still 
later  produced  the  symphonic  poem  of  Liszt  and  other 
modern  composers. 

Each  phase  of  an  art  has  its  culmination  where  a  medium 
becomes  perfected  —  and  therefore  exhausted ;  where  the 
flower  blooms  and  dies.  This  point  is  reached  when  some 
great  master  unites  in  his  works  two  essential  qualities 
complementary  to  each  other,  namely,  the  idea  and  its 
formal  investiture.     Such  a  point  was  reached  in  Bach's 


THE   VARIATION   FORM  101 

Fugues,  in  Mozart's  Symphonies,  and  in  Beethoven's 
String  Quartets;  in  all  these  the  two  great  elements  of 
perfection  were  united.  In  Mozart's  G-minor  Symphony, 
for  example,  the  thing  said,  and  the  manner  of  saying  it  — 
the  design,  the  orchestral  expression,  etc.  —  are  identical, 
but  in  the  instrumental  works  of  Handel  the  matter  was 
still  in  process. 

"The  Harmonious  Blacksmith"  is  in  the  fifth  of  the 
"Suites  de  Pieces  pour  le  Clavecin,"  commonly  known  as 
"Lessons,"  and  composed  for  Princess  Anne,  Handel's 
royal  pupil,  daughter  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  This  suite 
consisted  of  the  following  pieces:  —  I.  Prelude,  II.  Alle- 
mande.  III.  Courante,  IV.  Air. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  10. 

Handel:  ''The  Harmonious  Blacksmith,'*  from  the 
Fifth  Suite  for  Clavichord. 

The  biographies  of  Handel  give  several  versions  of  the 
story  supposed  to  be  connected  with  this  little  piece.  It 
seems  to  be  quite  certain  that  the  composer  never  used  the 
title,  and  that  it  has  one  at  all  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  public  seems  to  like  a  piece  better  if  it  is  supposed 
to  be  "about"  something.  Many  similar  uses  of  supposi- 
titious titles  will  occur  to  the  reader,  as,  for  example,  the 
"Moonlight"  sonata  of  Beethoven,  and  the  "Rain-drop" 
prelude  of  Chopin,  neither  of  which  grotesque  names  was 
ever  sanctioned  by  tHe  composer.  If  this  tune  of  Handel's 
ever  was  sung  by  a  burly  smith  at  his  forge  he  was  indeed 
an  "harmonious"  blacksmith.     In  any  case,  it  is  a  matter 


-;^>\TaAC»IB^^   v-.^^ 


102  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

of  record  that  the  identical  anvil  was  finally  ''discovered'* 
by  a  Mr.  Clark  and  found  a  resting  place  as  a  curio  in  an 
"Egyptian  Hall"  in  London. 

The  tune  itself  has  qualities  familiar  enough  to  students 
of  Handel's  instrumental  music.  Its  final  cadence,  in 
particular,  is  thoroughly  Handelian,  and  all  through  it 
there  is  that  decisive  and  assertive  manner  that  character- 
ises the  melodies  of  this  great  man.  There  is  nothing  of 
the  mystic  about  Handel;  his  oratorios  and  nearly  all 
his  smaller  pieces  have  a  straightforward  and  uncom- 
promising style.  He  never  gropes;  his  music  speaks  of  an 
unfaltering  self-confidence,  unclouded  by  doubts. 

The  methods  of  treatment  in  the  variations  is  a  simple 
one.  The  harmonies  remain  the  same  throughout,  while 
the  melody  is  changed  in  various  ways.  In  variation  I, 
for  example,  the  first  two  notes  of  the  original  melody  have 
been  made  into  an  arpeggio,  or  broken  chord,  and  this 
treatment  persists  throughout.  In  variation  II  the  melody 
loses  something  of  its  physiognomy,  and  is  only  suggested 
by  occasional  notes  in  the  upper  or  lower  part  for  the  right 
hand,  while  the  left  hand  plays  a  familiar  pattern  accom- 
paniment. Variation  III  plays  lightly  with  the  original 
theme,  hovering  around  it  with  delicate  scale  passages. 

This  variation  illustrates  an  important  principle  of 
musical  appreciation.  Played  by  itself,  without  reference 
to  what  has  preceded  it,  it  would  be  so  lacking  in  definite- 
ness  as  to  be  uninteresting;  its  connection  with  the  original 
theme,  however,  lends  to  it  a  certain  charm  and  significance. 
So  in  the  longer  instrumental  pieces  of  the  great  masters 


THE   VARIATION  FORM  103 

who  followed  Handel,  we  find  whole  sections  whose  mean- 
ing depends  on  their  relation  to  what  has  preceded  them, 
and  our  appreciation  of  the  significance  of  such  passages 
is  in  exact  proportion  to  our  powers  of  co-ordinating  in  our 
own  minds  these  various  sections  of  a  w^ork,  often  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  considerable  lapse  of  time. 

The  fourth  variation  is  like  an  inversion  of  the  third,  the 
left  hand  now  taking  the  rapid  scale  passages.  Variation 
V  is  the  least  definite  of  them  all,  being  made  of  scales 
played  against  chords  that  dimly  outline  the  original  melody. 

"The  Harmonious  Blacksmith"  is  not  a  highly  devel- 
oped piece  of  music,  for  it  lacks  one  essential  element  — 
in  an  instrumental  piece  as  long  as  this  there  should  be 
some  germination.  The  several  variations  of  this  melody 
are  merely  slightly  altered  versions  of  the  original  idea; 
in  highly  developed  specimens  of  this  form  each  variation 
is  a  new  creation  germinated  from  the  parent  thought. 

IV.     Haydn's  Andante  with  Variations  in  F-Minor. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  in  our  chapter  on 
"The  Rondo"  to  the  great  advance  in  pianoforte  music 
brought  about  by  Philip  Emanuel  Bach  and  Haydn,  but 
Haydn's  Andante  with  Variations  in  F-minor  is  still  more 
mature  than  any  of  the  pieces  to  which  we  referred.  In  fact, 
this  Andante  is  Haydn's  most  charming  pianoforte  piece, 
uniting  as  it  does  the  best  of  his  qualities.  It  is  the  first 
composition  in  homophonic  style  we  have  studied  in  which 
the  interest  of  the  listener  is  constantly  engaged  from 
beginning    to    end.     There   are   here   no   bald   repetitions, 


104  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

as  in  the  Rondo  of  Mozart,  no  meaningless  accompani- 
ment  figures,  no  conventional  endings,  but  from  first  to 
last  Haydn  tempts  us  onward  by  constantly  unfolding 
new  beauties,  yet  never  leaves  us  vaguely  wandering, 
doubtful  of  our  starting  point.  In  short,  this  andante  is 
a  fine  example  of  a  well  organized  piece  of  music;  it  is  full 
of  variety,  yet  its  unity  is  unmistakable. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  11. 

Haydn  :  Andante  with  Variations  in  F-Minor. 

It  is  unusual  for  a  variation  theme  to  be  in  two  distinct 
parts,  as  is  the  case  here.  The  chief  theme  in  F-minor  is 
followed  by  a  "trio"  theme  in  F-major  of  quite  a  distinct 
character.  This  is  one  of  the  many  interesting  experi- 
ments of  Haydn  in  devising  new  forms  or  combining  old 
ones.  The  weakness  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  whole 
theme  is  a  little  too  long;  it  lacks  the  conciseness  that  is 
necessary  to  a  themg  that  is  to  be  treated  in  a  long  series 
of  variations.  The  trio  theme  is  also  less  interesting  than 
the  first  theme  and  does  not  lend  itself  so  readily  to 
variations. 

An  important  principle  of  musical  development  is 
involved  here.  It  will  be  found  from  an  examination  of 
the  music  of  the  great  composers  that  the  most  perfect 
lyric  melodies  do  not  germinate,  whereas  themes  like  the 
first  theme  of  this  andante,  the  first  theme  of  Beethoven's 
Fifth  Symphony  —  which  are  not  by  any  means  beautiful 
lyric  melodies  —  are  pregnant  with  possibilities.  Any 
perfect   melody   like   *' Annie   Laurie,"   for   example,   is  a 


THE  VARIATION  FORM  105 

complete  thing;  nothing  can  be  added  to  it  or  taken  away 
from  it.  The  two  themes  just  mentioned,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  made  up  of  motives  which  are  characterised  by 
some  individual  quality  and  which  contain  certain  poten- 
tialities that  are  realized  only  as  the  piece  progresses.  And 
in  general  it  may  be  noted  that  the  distinctly  l;yTic  composers, 
such  as  Schubert,  Scnumann,  and  Grieg,  have  not  been 
conspicuously  successful  in  those  larger  forms  where  this 
principle  is  most  operative. 

The  little  motive  of  five  notes  with  which  the  right 
hand  part  of  the  andante  by  Haydn  begins  illustrates 
this.  There  is  hardly  a  measure  of  the  original  theme 
and  of  its  variations  in  which  this  motive  is  not  heard, 
and  the  variety  Haydn  imparts  to  it  is  quite  remarkable. 
The  trio  theme,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  lyric  —  more 
song-like,  and,  as  a  consequence,  we  find  the  variations 
consist  of  elaborate  ornamentations  of  the  theme  rather 
than  of  new  ideas  germinated  from  it. 

Variation  I  is  a  particularly  interesting  example  of 
Haydn's  style.  The  syncopation  in  the  right  hand  part, 
with  its  delicacy  of  utterance,  and  its  occasional  tender 
poignancy  (as  at  measure  52)  gives  to  this  portion  of  the 
piece  an  unusual  charm.  The  transposition  of  the  syn- 
copation to  the  left  hand  (at  measure  oQ)  is  particularly 
interesting  because  of  the  delicate  dissonances  that  result. 
The  passage  at  measures  83-88  might  almost  have  been 
WTitten  by  Rameau  or  Couperin,  so  full  is  it  of  trills  and 
other  ornaments.  This  is  in  the  old  harpsichord  style  of 
the  generation  before  Haydn. 


106 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


Variation  II  preserves  the  harmony  of  the  original 
theme,  but  supplants  its  melody  by  a  fluent  and  interesting 
passage  in  sixteenth  notes  that  passes  at  will  from  one 
hand  to  the  other. 

These  two  free  variations,  through  which  the  original 
tlieme  has  dimly  shone,  are  now  succeeded  by  a  finale, 
so  called,  in  which  the  theme  is  presented  in  its  simple 
form  as  if  to  bring  the  listener  home  again  after  his  excur- 
sions afield.  And  here,  it  should  be  specially  noted, 
Haydn  omits  all  reference  to  the  trio  theme,  as  if  conscious 
of  its  inferiority.  The  whole  finale  (from  measure  147)  is 
a  kind  of  dramatic  summing  up  of  the  story,  and  serves  much 
the  same  purpose  as  that  of  the  restatement  in  ternary  form. 

The  passage  between  measures  195  and  200  is  an  inter- 
esting example  of  a  process  common  in  pure  music.  Here 
the  motive  of  three  notes  (in  right  hand),  derived  from  the 
original  five  note  motive  in  measure  1,  gradually  loses  its 
physiognomy  until  its  characteristic  outline  has  entirely 
disappeared  and  it  has  become  a  purely  conventional  figure. 
A  celebrated  example  of  this  process  is  shown  in  Figure 
XXXIII  from  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  String 
Quartet,  op.  59,  No.  1. 

FIGURE  xxxin. 

First  phrase  of  Theme  from  Beethoven's  Quartet,  op.  59,  No.  1. 


SB=^=^ 


s^ 


tizMz 


J=t 


=^=it=i= 


Passage  from  Development  Section. 


THE  VARIATION    FORM  107 


^^ 


^ 


3t=J 


^—^ 


^3 


^ 


J=3: 


i=d=^^i=y^?3 


1^ 


.0)"    ! 


-i 1 h- 


S 


>   ;   f  ^f  "f  f  *  f  ,  f  f  ^f  b^ 


r    r    r    ^    ^     f ^^f^-«=6^=s: 


The  passage  from  which  the  second  of  the  quotations 
is  taken  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  all  chamber  music, 
and  the  whole  development  section  in  this  wonderful  move- 
ment will  repay  the  closest  study. 

Haydn's  andante  ends  with  a  few  tender  allusions  to 
the  persistent  motive  of  the  original  theme,  which  faintly 
echoes  in  pathetic  cadence.  Such  passages  endear  Haydn 
to  us  because  of  their  genuineness  There  is  nothing 
false  in  his  sentiment;  he  is  always  straightforward,  he 
always  writes  unaffectedly.  Among  the  great  composers 
he  stands  apart  as  a  simple-hearted  man,  who  was  without 
guile,  and  who  retained  to  the  end  of  his  life  the  same 
child-like  naivete. 


108  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

V.    The  Minuet. 

The  general  characteristics  of  dances  like  the  minuet, 
gavotte,  etc.,  have  been  referred  to  in  Chapter  IV,  where 
the  inclusion  of  the  minuet  in  the  sonata  and  symphony  of 
the  classical  period  was  noted.  We  are  here  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  the  effect  of  this  inclusion  on  the  minuet  itself 
and  with  its  status  in  the  group  of  movements  that  made 
up  the  cyclic  form. 

The  minuet  is  a  dance  of  French  origin,  characterised 
by  stateliness  and  grace.  The  earliest  music  written  for 
it  consisted  of  one  melody  containing  two  eight  measure 
phrases.  These  were  gradually  lengthened,  and  finally  a 
second  minuet  was  added  as  in  the  gavotte.  Bach  used 
the  minuet  sparingly  in  his  suites.  The  reader  is  referred 
to  the  fourth  English  Suite,  which  contains  a  minuet 
followed  by  minuet  II,  not  called  "Trio."  Handel  oc- 
casionally incorporates  the  minuet  in  his  suites  and  fre- 
quently uses  it  as  the  last  movement  in  his  oratorio  over- 
tures. All  these  old  minuets  were  in  slow  tempo,  but  the 
desire  for  freedom  of  expression  impelled  composers  not 
only  to  expand  them  in  various  ways,  but,  finally,  to 
increase  their  speed.  This  important  change  was  doubt- 
less largely  inspired  by  the  desire  for  contrast  in  the  move- 
ments of  the  symphony,  for  in  the  sonatas  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart  we  find  the  middle  movement  usually  an  andante 
or  adagio,  and  when  the  minuet^  is  incorporated  it  is  in 
slow  tempo. 

^  See  the  Minuet  in  Haydn's  piano  sonata  in  E-flat  (No.  3  in  Schirmer  edition)  and 
the  Minuet  in  Mozart's  well  known  piano  sonata  in  A-major  (with  the  Theme  and 
Variations). 


THE   VARIATION   FORM  109 

Practically  all  the  minuets  of  Bach  and  Handel  as  well 
as  those  of  the  Haydn-Mozart-Beethoven  period  were 
written  in  what  we  have  called  "simple  ternary  form,'* 
the  second  minuet,  or  trio,  constituting  the  middle  section, 
B.  Occasionally  a  minuet  with  two  trios  appears,  in 
which  case  the  form  becomes  A,  B,  A,  C,  A.  Marches 
(which  are  commonly  in  simple  ternary  form)  are  quite 
frequently  written  with  two  trios,  the  most  familiar  example 
being   the   well   known   wedding  march   by  Mendelssohn. 

The  symphonic  minuet  is  the  only  relic  of  the  suite 
retained  in  the  sonata  and  symphony.  The  changes  it 
underwent  through  this  promotion  from  the  ranks  of  the 
old  dances  were  not  only  changes  of  tempo,  but  of  spirit 
or  essence.  For  whereas  it  had  been  demure,  conventional, 
and  stately,  as  if  pervaded  by  a  kind  of  courtly  grace,  it 
became  in  Haydn's  time  a  wayward,  humorous,  and  even 
frolicsome  member  of  musical  society,  and  provided  a 
certain  lightness  and  spontaneity  much  needed  in  the  sober 
symphonic  family. 

The  reader  is  urged  to  consult  any  of  the  minuets  to 
be  found  in  the  string  quartets  or  symphonies  of  Haydn 
and  Mozart.  These  popular  short  movements  are  so 
available  in  arrangements  for  the  piano  that  it  is  not  thought 
necessary  to  incorporate  one  here. 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

Grove's  Dictionary:  articles  ''Minuet,'*  ''Sonata,**  and 
"  Symphony. "  Shedlock  :  "  The  Pianoforte  Sonata. "  Mason: 
"Beethoven  and  His  Forerunners.*" 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SONATA -FORM  I. 

I.     Composite  Nature  of  the  Sonata. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  important  of  all  musical  forms 
to-day  is  the  sonata,  as  will  easily  be  recognized  if  we 
remember  that  not  only  the  pieces  which  bear  this  name 
as  a  title,  but  also  the  numerous  symphonies,  overtures, 
concertos,  and  trios,  quartets,  quintets,  and  so  on,  are 
examples  of  this  form.  The  symphony  is  simply  a  sonata, 
on  a  large  scale,  for  orchestra;  the  overture  is  a  similar 
piece  for  orchestra,  in  one  movement;  the  concerto  is,  as  it 
were,  a  symphony  with  a  solo  instrument  emphasized  or 
placed  in  the  foreground;  trios,  quartets,  quintets,  etc., 
are  sonatas  for  various  groups  of  string  and  wind  instru- 
ments. Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  bulk  of  all  instru- 
mental music  is  cast  in  this  ever  available  and  useful  form 
of  the  sonata. 

At  this  point,  however,  a  confusion  is  likely  to  arise  from 
the  fact  that  the  term  "sonata"  is  used  in  two  senses. 
It  means  sometimes  a  complete  piece  of  music  in  three  or 
more  distinct  movements ;  at  other  times  it  means  a  scheme 
or  plan  of  musical  structure  exemplified  in  one  or  more  of 
these  movements,  usually  the  first.  When  used  in  this 
sense  it  is  generally  coupled  with  the  word  "form":    this  is 

110 


SONATA-FORM  111 

the  way  in  which  we  shall  use  it  here,  letting  "  sonata-form " 
mean  this  peculiar  type  of  musical  structure,  to  be  described 
in  detail  presently,  while  using  "sonata"  alone  to  name  a 
complete  composition  of  which  one  or  more  movements 
are  in  "sonata-form." 

The  sonata,  as  written  by  Philip  Emanuel  Bach, 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and  modern  composers,  usually 
contains  some  movements  in  forms  more  primitive  than 
"sonata-form,"  and  already  familiar  to  us.  Thus  the 
minuet,  which  often  appears  as  the  second  or  third  move- 
ment of  a  sonata,  has  changed  little  since  Mozart's  day; 
the  rondo,  frequently  used  in  the  finale  of  a  sonata,  remains 
in  all  essentials  as  it  is  presented  in  the  last  diagram  of 
Chapter  VI;  and  the  theme  and  variations,  so  far  as  its 
formal  plan  is  concerned,  has  remained  very  much  as 
Haydn  left  it,  although,  in  common  with  the  rondo,  it  has 
been  vastly  enriched  in  content  and  diversified  in  style 
by  the  genius  of  Beethoven. 

II.  Essentials  of  Sonata-Form. 

The  element  of  true  novelty  in  sonatas  is  to  be  found, 
not  in  these  primitive  movements,  but  rather  in  those 
movements  which  are  in  "sonata-form,"  and  which  show 
a  breadth  of  conception  and  an  elaboration  in  development 
never  found  in  simple  lyric  forms  like  the  minuet.  This 
breadth  and  elaboration  is  always  the  result  of  a  germina- 
tion of  musical  thought,  such  as  we  have  already  often 
mentioned,  and  by  virtue  of  which  alone  a  composition 
can  take  on  real  grandeur  of  proportions.     The  essentials 


112  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

of  sonata-form  are  (1)  the  presentation  of  two  or  more 
themes  or  subjects  in  that  section  known  as  the  Exposition, 
and  symboHzed  in  our  diagrams  by  the  letter  A;  (2)  the 
evolution  of  these  themes,  by  means  of  melodic  germina- 
tion, in  that  section  known  as  the  Development,  and 
symbolized  by  B;  and  (3)  the  restatement  of  the  original 
themes,  rounding  out  the  movement  symmetrically,  in  the 
section  known  as  the  Recapitulation,  and  symbolized 
again  by  A  on  account  of  its  practical  identity  with  the 
Exposition.  It  matters  not  which  movement  of  a  sonata 
takes  this  characteristic  form,  whether,  as  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  it  is  the  first  (whence  the  term  "first-movement 
form,"  often  used  as  a  synonym  for  "sonata-form")  or  the 
slow  movement,  as  often  happens,  or  the  finale.  Where- 
ever  sonata-form  exists  we  find  this  three-part  sectional 
structure,  resulting  from  the  natural  germination  in  the 
middle  section  of  the  musical  ideas  stated  in  the  first, 
followed  by  their  restatement  in  the  third  section. 

The  reader  may  ask  at  this  point,  in  what  respect 
such  a  form  differs  from  the  simple  ternary  form  illus- 
trated in  a  minuet,  for  example,  wherein  the  second  section 
usually  contains  some  development  of  the  theme,  and  the 
third  some  recapitulation.  The  answer  is  that  in  the 
sonata-form  the  enlargement  of  the  proportions  throughout 
results,  first,  in  the  substitution  of  complete  and  more  or 
less  contrasting  themes,  for  the  rather  slight  musical  sub- 
ject of  a  minuet,  and  second,  in  the  substitution  of  a  long 
and  elaborate  development  of  these  themes  for  the  rather 
casual  and  superficial   modification   of  the  subject  which 


SONATA-FORM  118 

forms  the  second  section  of  a  minuet.  Moreover,  in  the 
sonata-form  a  novel  feature  is  the  contrast  introduced  by 
making  the  first  section  embody  duality  of  key  (first  theme 
in  tonic,  second  in  related  key)  while  the  third  section,  by 
presenting  both  themes  in  the  tonic,  embodies  unity  of  key. 
Nevertheless  it  remains  true  that  sonata-form  is,  both 
logically  and  historically,  a  development  of  such  simple 
forms  as  we  have  in  the  minuet,  as  is  indicated  by  the  name 
of  "developed  ternary  form"  often  given  to  it/ 

Sonata-form  is  thus  but  an  extreme  application  of 
certain  essential  principles  of  structure  exemplified  in 
simple  ways  in  other  more  primitive  musical  forms,  and 
for  that  matter  in  many  other  departments  of  life.  It  is 
perhaps  not  over-fanciful  to  discover  the  same  principles 
in  the  construction  of  a  novel,  in  which  we  often  find: 
first,  the  presentation  of  certain  characters,  more  or  less 
in  antagonism;  second,  the  development  of  the  plot  and  of 
the  charactets  themselves;  and  third,  the  reconciliation 
of  the  characters  in  the  denouement.  Similarly,  a  sermon 
consists  of  (1)  the  assertion  of  a  text  or  subject  of  discourse, 
(2)  the  illustration  of  its  truth  by  examples  and  other 
elucidations  of  what  is  implied  in  it,  and  (3)  a  final  restate- 
ment of  it  with  the  greater  force  made  possible  by  its  dis- 
cussion. Or  again,  we  may  see  striking  analogies  to  the 
artistic  form  we  are  considering  in  such  processes  of  nature 
as  the  budding,  flowering,  and  death  of  a  plant,  or  in  human 
life  with  its  youth,  its  period  of  activity,  and  its  time  of 
retrospect. 

'  It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  three  names  for  this  one  type  of  structure:    "Sonata- 
form,"  "First-movement  form,"  and  "Developed  ternary  form." 


114  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

III.   A  Sonata  by  Philip  Emanuel  Bach. 

Sonata-form,  historically  speaking,  first  takes  definite 
shape  in  the  work  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach  (1714-1788),  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  sons  of  the  great  Sebastian  Bach. 
Though  not  a  man  of  the  highest  creative  genuis,  C.  P.  E. 
Bach  possessed  an  ingenuity  and  a  pioneering  spirit  which 
led  him  to  make  innovations  so  important  that  Haydn  and 
Mozart  freely  acknowledged  their  debt  to  him.  Feeling 
that  music  in  the  polyphonic  style  had  reached  its  full 
development,  he  was  original  and  adventurous  enough  to 
seek  new  means  of  expression  and  a  novel  combination 
of  features  of  style  already  familiar. 

In  order  to  understand  the  situation  that  confronted 
him  we  must  put  aside  temporarily  the  impressions  we 
have  received  from  the  Andante  of  Haydn  and  the  Rondo 
of  Mozart,  since  both  these  compositions  were  produced 
at  a  time  when  his  influence  had  already  made  itself  felt. 
He  had  to  face  the  problem  of  writing  instrumental  music 
that  should  be  free  from  the  constraining  influence  of  the 
dance,  of  polyphonic  style,  and  of  the  elaborately  orna- 
mented style  of  operatic  music.  He  had  also  to  find  out 
how  to  unify  a  long  piece  of  instrumental  music  by  co-or- 
dinating all  its  parts.  The  only  solution  of  these  problems 
lay  in  inventing  what  might  be  called  pure  instrumental 
melody:  i.  e.,  melody  that  was  essentially  expressive  in  the 
particular  medium  employed  —  the  piano,  the  violin,  the 
orchestra  —  and  that  was  unhampered  either  by  strict 
poetic  or  dance  forms,  or  by  the  peculiar  phraseology  of 


SONATA-FORM  115 

polyphony.  He  did  not,  to  be  sure,  entirely  achieve  this; 
we  find  evidences  of  both  the  older  styles  in  his  music. 
But  an  examination  of  any  instrumental  masterpiece  of 
Beethoven  will  reveal  how  much  he  owed  to  the  pioneer 
labors  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach. 

We  must  here  caution  the  reader  against  the  supposi- 
tion that  music  at  this  particular  time  leaped  suddenly 
forward.  The  tendencies  that  we  have  been  speaking  of 
were  latent  long  before  Philip  Emanuel  Bach  appeared, 
and  there  was  no  strict  line  of  demarcation  where  one  kind 
of  music  stopped  and  another  began.  Organic  develop- 
ment never  progresses  in  that  way;  each  phase  of  it  begins 
slowly,  becomes  eventually  operative,  and  dies  as  slowly  as  it 
began.  And  there  were  other  composers  working  at  that 
time  on  the  same  problems;  composers  who  were  of  consider- 
able importance  then,  but  whose  names  are  now  forgotten. 
Example  for  Analysis,  No.  12. 

Philip  Emanuel  Bach:  Piano  Sonata  ^  in  F -Minor,  First 
Movement. 

This  Sonata  has  three  movements:  1.  Fast  (Allegro 
assai);  2.  Slow  (Andante  cantabile);  3.  Slow  (Andantino 
grazioso).  The  third  of  these .  is  marked  "attacca"  to 
indicate  that  the  usual  pause  between  the  movements 
is  to  be  omitted.  In  the  second  and  third  movements  the 
themes  themselves  and  their  treatment  reveal  the  tentative 
nature  of  Bach's  efforts.  Each  of  these  themes  is  over- 
embellished;  each  has  something  ot  the  vagueness  usual 
in  piano  music  of  his  time,  and  yet  there  is  a  distinct  ten- 

•  No.  1  in  the  edition  by  Peters,  Leipzig. 


116  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

dency  towards  deifinite,  strophic  melody  such  as  is  common 
in  the  sonatas  of  Haydn  and  Mozart. 

But  the  first  movement  of  this  sonata  of  Philip  Emanuel 
Bach's  is  quite  remarkable.  Its  theme  is  definite,  its 
phraseology  clear  and  concise,  and  its  form  well  rounded. 
In  fact  a  comparison  of  the  opening  measures  with  those 
of  the  theme  from  Beethoven's  first  sonata  will  reveal  a 
decided  similarity.  Beethoven's  theme  is  constructed  from 
a  figure  or  phrase,  ascending  like  an  arpeggio  higher  and 
higher,  until  a  climax  is  reached,  after  which  the  melody 
dies  down  to  a  pause  or  half  cadence  on  the  dominant 
chord.  This  is  precisely  what  happens  with  the  theme  of 
Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  although  the  second  half  of  the  theme 
is  more  regular  than  Beethoven's,  the  complete  melody 
being  in  what  might  be  called  "verse  form,"  each  two- 
measure  phrase  corresponding  to  a  line  of  verse. 

More  important  still,  however,  is  the  quality  of  the 
melody  itself.  It  is  distinctly  in  the  style  suitable  for  the 
piano;  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  old  song  melody,  nor  of 
polyphonic  phraseology,  nor  of  dance  tunes.  This  is, 
in  short,  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of  pure  pianoforte 
music,  using  the  term  in  a  modern  sense.  Another  in- 
teresting point  in  this  movement  is  the  presence  of  two 
contrasting  themes  in  the  Exposition.  "  The  principle  of 
alternately  stating  two  contrasting  themes,  which  found  its 
ultimate  expression  in  the  successive  presentation  of  first 
and  second  subjects,  had  been  familiar  to  the  musical 
world  as  long  as  minuets  and  trios,  gavottes,  musettes, 
and  the  like,  had  been  in  vogue,  but  the  process  by  which 


SON  ATA- FORM  117 

the  two  subjects  are  allowed  to  be  interwoven  with  each 
other,  or  to  generate,  as  it  were,  new  material  having  its 
origin  in  something  that  has  gone  before,  opened  out  a 
world  of  fresh  possibilities  to  the  composers  of  the  later 
times,  and  gave  them  opportunities  which  had  been  alto- 
gether withheld  from  Bach  and  his  contemporaries."  "  Ox- 
ford History  of  Music,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  141.  The  two  themes 
constitute  the  material  out  of  which  the  whole  movement 
grows  or  germmates,  so  that  they  somewhat  resemble 
characters  in  a  story,  and  this  analogy  is  further  carried 
out  in  the  quality  of  the  themes  themselves,  the  first  being 
usually  vigorous  and  to  a  certain  degree  non-lyric,  while 
the  second  is  lyric  and  more  sentimental;  as  if  one  were 
masculine  and  the  other  feminine. 

But  in  this  movement  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach's  Sonata 
the  second  theme  is  hardly  more  than  an  embryo.  It 
begins  at  measure  16,  and  occupies  only  ten  measures, 
the  last  five  of  which  are  somewhat  vague  and  rhapsodical. 
Thus  its  entire  effect  is  somewhat  indefinite,  and  if  we 
compare  it  with  the  second  theme  of  any  modern  sonata 
we  shall  realize  that  it  is  very  imperfectly  individualized. 
The  second  theme  did  not  become  an  essential  and  dis- 
tinct element  of  sonata-form  until  somewhat  later;  in 
Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  and  even  in  many  movements  of 
Haydn,  it  remains  completely  subordinate  to  its  more  im- 
portant companion,  the  first  theme.  Following  the  second 
theme  —  at  measure  26  —  a  coda  ensues.  This  important 
factor  in  musical  form  has  been  already  referred  to  in  our 
chapters    on  "The    Rondo"    and    "The    Variation."     Its 


118  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

office  here  is  the  same  as  in  former  examples,  namely,  to 
round  out  this  part  of  the  movement  properly  and  to 
emphasize  the  close  of  the  first  section. 

The  exposition  (A)  extends  through  measure  34 
and  is  concluded  with  a  double  bar.  During  the  period 
from  Philip  Emanuel  Bach  to  Mozart  this  portion  of  the 
movement  was  always  repeated  in  order  to  make  it  per- 
fectly familiar  to  the  listener.  The  development  section 
begins  immediately  after  the  double  bar  and  extends  to 
the  point  where  the  first  theme  returns  in  its  original  form; 
in  this  movement  that  point  is  reached  at  measure  66. 
We  have  already  pointed  out  certain  simple  methods  of 
generation  in  music,  as  in  the  Bach  Gavotte  discussed  in 
Chapter  IV,  but  we  now  have  to  consider  the  growth  of  a 
long  section  of  a  composition  from  certain  germs  contained 
in  the  original  theme.  And  this  brings  up  an  important 
question:  How  do  musical  themes  generate .'^  In  the  Bach 
Gavotte  a  brief  phrase  of  one  measure  duration  blossoms 
out  into  a  passage  six  measures  long.  This  may  be  observed 
by  reference  to  Figure  XXXIV,  in  which  (a)  represents  the 
original  phrase  and  (b)  the  expansion  of  it. 


FIGURE  XXXIV. 

^-  .0-^  ^  -#-  -^ 


:JJ^^JJ 


SONATA-FORM  119 

This  development,  however,  is  hardly  more  than  an 
extension  of  the  original  phrase.  For  the  purposes  of 
sonata-form  something  more  radical  and  far  reaching,  some- 
thing more  like  new  creation  is  necessary.  Without  going 
into  detail  *  we  may  be  content  with  pointing  out  the  essen- 
tial principle  of  this  more  radical  development.  Analysis 
shows  that  it  always  depends  on  the  selection  of  certain 
salient  characteristics  of  the  original  themes  and  representa- 
tion of  them  under  new  guises,  or  under  new  conditions. 

Just  as  a  novelist  develops  his  characters  by  letting 
their  fundamental  peculiarities  manifest  themselves  in  all 
sorts  of  ways  and  among  all  kinds  of  circumstances,  mean- 
while paying  but  scant  attention  to  theh*  more  accidental 
or  superficial  traits,  so  the  composer  of  a  sonata  seizes 
upon  whatever  is  individual  in  his  themes  —  a  strong 
rhythm,  a  peculiar  turn  of  phrase,  a  striking  bit  of 
harmony  —  and  repeats  and  insists  upon  it  tirelessly,  with 
whatever  variation  of  minor  details  his  ingenuity  may 
suggest.  An  examination  of  this  process  of  generation  in 
the  works  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  will  make  these  important 
points  clear.  In  Figure  XXXV  (a),  is  shown  a  brief  quota- 
tion from  the  beginning  of  the  first  movement  of  Haydn's 
Symphony  in  D-major.  Although  this  theme  has  no  pro- 
nounced rhythmic  figures  the  four  repeated  notes  in  measure 
3  are  unusual  in  a  simple  melody  of  this  type,  and  Haydn 
chooses  them  (with  the  first  two  notes  in  the  next  measure) 
as  the  first  subject  of  his  development  section. 

*  SeeHadow's  "Sonata-Form"  (Novello)  Chapter  VII,  for  a  discussion  of  the  varioua 
methods  of  theme-devdopmeat. 


120 

{a)   Allegro 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIO 

FIGURE  XXXV. 


'^      1      j       'l-^ 


1^ 


'U=^=J=Jd^A 


54 


fc 


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p 


iiiifc^'-^j 


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I^^Ss 


-« — » — • — •- 


:i 


Sii; 


^-•-^-^ 


^: 


£ 


fT 


1^ 


At  5  in  the  above  quotation  will  be  found  a  short  passage 
from  the  beginning  of  the  development  section  of  the  same 
movement.  This  passage  illustrates  the  detachment  of 
a  characteristic  motive  in  a  melody,  and  here  the  use  of  it 
in  various  keys  as  a  means  of  setting  forth,  as  it  were,  its 
latent  possibilities.  Here  a  certain  element  in  the  theme 
is  freed  and  takes  on  an  existence  of  its  own,  and  until  the 
very  end  of  the  section  we  hear  it  over  and  over  again  in 
different  parts  of  the  orchestra. 


SONATA-FORM 


121 


The   methods  of   germination  employed    by  Haydn  in 
the  foregoing  illustration  were  typical  of  his  time.     Mozart 


FIGURE  XXXVI. 


{a)  Allegro. 


^^^r    r-t- 


-•— # 


-(2 •- 


V.  I. 


Ei 


:p=3i: 


£ 


■^=2- 


i 


V.  11, 


P 


Ei 


zMzzrnL 


?=?-^-r-# 


^S 


;i=* 


\ 


Viola, 


:p=f= 


'Cello. 


etc. 


-*— -- 


-*— -- 


r^E£«=^E^E3E^^ 


K^ 


|»E?=^**=?=* 


-;?=>- 


:^i:iKfl^-' 


WW^ 


etc 


commonly  relies,  in  his  development  sections,  on  the  interest 
provided  by  presenting  some  salient  motive  in  a  variety 


122  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

of  keys  and  with  polyphonic  treatment.  Examples  of  this 
are  to  be  found  in  Figure  XXXVI,  containing  (a)  the  original 
motive  from  the  first  movement  of  his  string  quartet  in  C- 
major,  dedicated  to  Haydn,  and  (b),  (c),  short  excerpts 
from  the  development  section  of  the  same  movement. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  (b),  the  viola  imitates  the 
first  violin  while  the  second  violin  and  'cello  reiterate  the 
four  eighth-notes  of  the  original  motive,  and  that,  in  (c), 
the  'cello  takes  the  motive,  while  each  of  the  three  upper 
parts  sounds  the  eighth-notes,  staccato;  the  contrasts  of  key 
should  also  be  observed.  This  is  a  very  concise  and  logical 
example  of  the  methods  of  generation  employed  by  Haydn 
and  Mozart. 

The  first  theme  of  the  movement  by  Philip  Emanuel 
Bach  has  two  salient  qualities:  it  progresses  by  leaps  up- 
ward, and  it  has  a  peculiarly  noticeable  rhythm.  These 
two  properties  are  brought  into  play  almost  immediately. 
After  a  brief  statement  of  the  opening  phrase  of  the 
theme  (36-39)  in  the  relative  major  key  —  as  if  to  tell  us 
what  is  to  be  the  subject  of  this  part  of  the  movement  — 
the  composer  proceeds  to  evolve  a  passage  (40-44)  with 
chords  (in  the  right  hand)  in  the  rhythm  of  the  theme,  and 
against  them  (in  the  left  hand)  a  passage  containing  the 
leaps  upward.  This  is  further  varied  by  free  changes  in 
harmony. 

The  initial  phrase  of  the  first  theme  and  a  brief  quota- 
tion from  this  passage  in  the  development  section  are 
shown  in  Figure  XXXVII. 

This    development    is,    however,    all    too    short.     After 


SONATA-FORM 


123 


measure    44  the    music    becomes    discursive,    showing   no 
longer  any  definite  bearing  on  the  original  subject  matter. 

FIGURE  XXXVII. 

{a)  /vv 


( 


7^^,V     1       ^^■•^ 

r^ ■• F^^-i 

«  ^-'—J — -; ^- 

N» 

if* == f 

^^-^^^     ,         •^    — h 

d?3=^ 


s_^ »*= =-" — 


* 


3=^P^ 


S-^ 


risoliito. 


'^S^^^Ss^;^^. 


>-'l Ph ^ l-^~c 


2E 


^ 


iSfci?=S* 


:^=z:5iS*^ 


f7>»- 


^•:f: 


-« =5^ 


* 


This  discursiveness  is  a  natural  characteristic  of  the  forma- 
tive period  in  the  evolution  of  sonata-form,   before    com- 


124 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


posers  had  learned  the  necessity  of  a  close  logical  develop- 
ment throughout. 

The  "restatement after  contrast"  in  sonata-form  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  '*  recapitulation."  In  the  early  speci- 
mens of  the  form  the  recapitulation  was,  except  in  its 
harmonies,  almost  identical  with  the  exposition.  Here 
the  first  theme  is  reduced  to  one  half  its  original  length, 
which  is  rather  an  unusual  abbreviation.  Mr.  Hadow,  in 
his  "Sonata  Form,"  lays  down  the  following  rule  for  this 
portion  of  the  movement:  "The  recapitulation  should 
not  contain  any  noticeably  fresh  material;  it  should  follow 
the  main  thought  of  the  exposition  with  no  important 
parentheses  or  divergences,  and,  when  it  varies,  should  do 
so  in  a  manner  which  does  not  obscure  the  subjects,  but 
only  sets  them  in  a  new  light." 

In  Figure  XXXVIII  is  shown  the  foregoing  plan  in  the 
form  of  a  diagram.  This  should  be  compared  with  the 
similar  diagrams  in  Chapter  IX. 

FIGURE  xxxvin. 
TABULAR  VIEW  OF  SONATA-FORM,  OR  FIRST-MOVEMENT  FORM. 


A 

Exposition 

B 

Development 

A 

Recapitulation 

Introduction  (optional) 
Theme  I,    usually   followed 
by  a  short  transition,  or  link 
Theme  II  in  contrasting  key 
Coda 
(Duality  of  harmony) 

This  section  is  based  on 
themes  already  presented 
in    the    Exposition 

(Plurality  of  Harmony) 

Theme  I. 

Transition  (?) 

Theme    II  in    tonic   or 

•    home  key 

Coda 

(Unity  of  Harmony) 

SONATA-FORM  125 

IV,  Harmony  as  a  Part  of  Design. 

There  remains  to  be  considered  the  important  factor 
of  harmony,  or  arrangement  of  keys.  This  arrangement  is 
shown  in  the  diagram.  Figure  XXXVIII;  but  the  principle 
involved  is  an  important  one,  and  the  mere  statement  of 
Duality,  Plurality  and  Unity  hardly  suffices  to  explain  it. 
There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  subtle  uses  composers 
make  of  harmony  are  less  intelligible  to  the  average  listener 
than  are  the  uses  of  themes.  A  theme  represents,  as  it 
were,  a  line,  and  since  it  is  the  tune  that,  for  most  listeners, 
constitutes  the  music  the  attention  of  the  listeners  is  readily 
drawn  to  changes  which  materially  affect  it.  Harmonic 
design,  on  the  other  hand  —  the  setting  of  one  key  or  series 
of  keys  against  another  —  is  often  only  dimly  recognized, 
if  at  all,  although  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  all 
modern  music.  In  sonata-form  the  harmonic  plan 
(described  above  by  the  terms  Duality,  Plurality  and 
Unity)  adds  an  important  element  since  it  unifies  the  last 
section  by  stating  both  first  and  second  theme  in  the  same 
key.  And  in  the  middle,  or  development  section,  the 
freedom  of  harmonic  progression  —  the  multitude  of  keys 
—  gives  great  variety  and  enables  the  composer  freely  to 
indulge  his  fancy. 

In  the  present  movement  Bach  chooses  at  times  certain 
remote  keys  that  impart  to  this  section  of  the  piece  a  charm 
of  their  own.  The  passage  beginning  on  the  second  beat 
of  measure  54  illustrates  this:  the  four  measures  that  follow 
are  all  in  the  remote  key  of  F-flat  major.  (The  reader  should 


126  THE  APPREOIATION   OF  MUSIC 

examine  each  of  the  modulations  that  occurs  in  the  develop- 
ment section.)  However  unconscious  of  the  charm  of 
harmonic  variety  the  average  listener  may  be,  he  would 
surely  be  conscious  of  monotony  were  the  piece  all  in  one 
or  even  two  keys.  And  since  the  tendency  of  the  music  of 
to-day  is  to  exalt  harmony  at  the  expense  of  melody,  it  is 
desirable  that  the  student  should  pay  particular  attention 
to  these  early  phases  of  harmonic  structure,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  appreciate  this  important  element  in  modern  music.  In 
fact  the  whole  progress  of  music  since  Haydn  has  been 
steadily  onward  towards  a  free  use  of  the  different  keys, 
and  as  our  ears  have  become  accustomed  to  new  combina- 
tions of  chords,  we  have  gradually  come  to  feel  the  beauty 
that  lies  in  glowing  musical  colors,  and  to  accept  them  as 
a  legitimate  means  of  expression.  In  our  chapters  on 
Beethoven  this  phase  of  musical  development  will  receive 
fuller  attention. 

V.  Summary. 

In  this  movement  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach,  despite  its  many  cru- 
dities, there  is  taken  a  long  step  toward  the  establishment  of 
modern  sonata-form.  The  main  divisions  of  the  form, 
exposition,  development,  and  recapitulation,  appear 
clearly;  solid  harmonic  structure  is  attained  by  the  sequence 
of  duality,  plurality,  and  unity;  there  are  two  contrasting 
themes,  though  the  second  is  rudimentary;  the  general 
principle  of  development  of  themes  through  insistence  on 
salient  features  is  illustrated;  and  the  whole  movement  is 
written  in  a  style  well  suited  to  the  piano,  and  emancipated 


SONATA-FORM  127 

from  the  influence  of  polyphony  and  of  the  short  dance 
and  song  forms. 

In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  see  how  Haydn  and  Mozart 
proceeded  to  build  more  elaborate  structures  on  the  foun- 
dation thus  laid  by  C.  P.  E.  Bach. 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

Dickinson:  "The  Study  of  the  History  of  Music^'* 
Chapter  XIV.  Grove:  ""Dictionary  of  Music ^'^  articles  on 
"Bach,  Philip  Emanuel/'  "Sonata/'  "Form.''  C.  H.H. 
Parry:  "Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,"  Chapters  VII 
and  IX  (Appleton).  "  Oxford  History  of  Music/* 
Volume  IV, 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SONATA-FORM  11. 

I.  Haydn  and  the  Sonata-Form. 

The  type  of  musical  structure  which  first  took  on 
definite  shape  in  the  work  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  the 
type  which  may  be  defined  as  consisting  essentially  of 
the  exposition,  development,  and  restatement  of  two  con- 
trasted themes,  and  to  which  the  name  of  sonata-form  is 
given,  was  not  reduced  to  perfect  clearness  until  the 
time  of  Haydn  (1732-1809),  who  because  of  his  labors  in 
this  field  is  often  called  "The  father  of  the  symphony."^ 
Having  the  inestimable  advantage  of  being  concert-master, 
for  a  period  of  thirty  years  (1761-1791),  to  the  princely 
house  of  the  Esterhazys,  where  he  had  a  small  but  good 
orchestra  under  his  direction,  and  was  expected  constantly 
to  produce  new  pieces  for  it  to  play,  he  was  practically 
forced  to  write  an  astonishing  amount  of  music,  in  all  of 
which  this  form  figured  prominently.  Hardly  one  of  his 
hundred  and  twenty-five  symphonies,  and  his  seventy- 
seven  string  quartets,  etc.,  is  without  one  or  more  examples 
of  sonata-form.  Such  constant  practice  enabled  him  to 
carry  it  far  beyond  the  rather  indeterminate  state  in  which 

*  A  symphony,  as  we  have  seen,  is  only  a  sonata,  on  a  large  scale,  for  orchestra. 

128 


SONATA-FORM  129 

Philip  Emanuel  Bach  left  it,  and  to  crystallize  it  as  a  struc- 
tural type  for  all  time. 

Among  the  most  important  advances  made  by  Haydn 
over  the  practice  of  his  predecessor,  as  we  saw  it  illustrated 
in  the  last  chapter,  were  (1)  the  greater  importance  and 
individuality  given  to  the  second  theme  ^;  (2)  the  abolish- 
ment of  merely  rhapsodical  passages,  and  the  substitution 
of  successions  of  chords  marking  off  unmistakably  the 
various  sections  of  the  movement;  (3)  increased  definition 
at  the  end  of  the  exposition  section,  in  the  "codetta,'* 
which,  in  some  instances,  even  has  a  definite  theme  or 
themes  of  its  own,  called  conclusion-themes;  (4)  greater 
clearness  in  the  key-system  of  the  whole  movement,  accord- 
ing to  the  principle  of  Duality-Plurality-Unity  already 
discussed;  (5)  increased  importance  and  extent  of  the  coda, 
which  sometimes  grows  to  the  proportions  of  a  fourth  sec- 
tion to  the  movement;  (6)  use  of  an  introduction,  generally 
in  slow  time  and  of  a  stately  character,  preparing  the  mind 
for  serious  attention.  It  will  be  noted  that  all  these 
advances  are  in  the  direction  of  making  the  form  more 
definite,  clear-cut,  and  readily  intelligible,  as  it  was  most 
important  that  it  should  be  made  in  its  early  existence 
until  it  was  perfectly  familiar  to  the  audience.  Increased 
variety  came  later,  in  the  work  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven, 
and  could  come  only  after  the  typical  structure  was  thor- 

*  Even  in  Haydn,  however,  the  second  themes  remain  generally  rather  rudimentary 
(see  the  analysis  of  his  "  Surprise  Symphony,"  later  in  this  chapter).  In  many  cases  his 
second  theme  is  hardly  more  than  a  variant  of  the  first;  as  for  example  in  the  two  piano- 
forte sonatas  in  E-flat  major.  In  the  first  movement  of  his  "Paukenwirbel"  Symphony, 
however,  there  is  a  very  distinct  second  theme,  and  in  many  other  movements  the  student 
will  note  a  marked  tendency  toward  definition. 


130 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


oughly  understood  by  the  public.  Thus  Haydn's  function 
was  that  of  a  systematizer,  an  establisher  of  sure  founda- 
tions on  which  more  elaborate  and  free  superstructures 
may  later  be  built;  and  for  this  work  his  clear,  simple, 
well-disciplined  mind  and  his  thorough  rather  than  brilliant 
artistic  technique  admirably  fitted  him. 

These  points  will  be  made  clear  by  an  analysis  of  an 
example  of  sonata-form,  taken  from  the  "Surprise"  Sym- 
phony which  he  wrote  for  London  audiences  in  1791, 
toward  the  close  of  his  career. 

The  general  structure,  as  regards  both  themes  and 
larger  sections,  may  be  conveniently  shown  •  in  tabular 
form,  thus :  — 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FIRST  MOVEMENT  OF 
HAYDN'S  "  SURPRISE  "   SYMPHONY. 


Main  Divisions. 

Themes. 

Measures. 

Slow  Introduction 

1-17 

Exposition  (A) 
Duality  of  Harmony 

First  theme,  G-major 

18-22 

Passage  work 

First  theme,  repeated 

Transition  to  key  of  D-major  (Dominant) 

Second  theme,  D-major 

22-39 
40-44 
44-67 
67-80 

Third,  or  Conclusion  theme,  D-major 

"Cadences,"  emphasizing  close  in  this  key 

81-93 
93-108 

Development  (B) 
Plurality     of     Har- 
mony 

109-156 

Recapitulation  (A) 
Unity  of  Harmony 

156-160 

Passage  work 

Second  theme,  now  in  G-major           

Further  working  of  First  theme        

160-185 
185-196 
196-231 

Conclusion  theme,  now  in  G-major .•    •    • 

"Cadences,"  emphasizing  the  home  key  of  G-major.    . 

231-244 
244-259 

SONATA-FORM  131 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  13. 

Haydn: ^  ''Surprise  Symphony "  the  first  movement. 
Tivo-hand,  piano  arrangement  of  twelve  Symphonies  of  Haydn. 

The  first  thing  that  strikes  us  about  the  general  char- 
acter of  this  movement  is  its  admirable  clearness,  in  which 
it  is  representative  of  all  Haydn's  work.  In  spite  of  its 
being  so  much  larger  and  more  complex  than  the  sonata 
of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  its  structure  is  so  obvious  that  a 
child  could  hardly  go  astray  in  following  it.  This  is  in 
large  measure  due  to  the  pains  the  composer  takes  to 
emphasize  each  key  and  each  change  of  key  by  means  of 
scale-passages  and  chords.  (See,  for  example,  measures 
59-67,  emphasizing  the  key  of  D-major,  and  the  entire 
conclusion-portions  of  both  the  exposition  and  the  recapit- 
ulation (67-108)  and  (185-259),  one  insisting  on  D-major, 
the  other  on  G-major.)  Such  passages  as  these  have  been 
much  criticised  for  their  conventionality  and  lack  of  melodic 
interest,  but  when  we  realize  how  they  punctuate  the 
movement,  so  to  speak,  and  what  a  perfect  clearness  they 
give  it,  we  realize  how  important  they  were  to  the  early 
stage  of  development  of  the  sonata-form,  when  its  prin- 
ciples had  not  become  as  universally  familiar  as  they  are 
now.  They  are  an  immense  advance  over  the  vague  rhap- 
sodizings  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach  in  parallel  places. 

The  key-relationships  of  the  movement  follow  the  usual 
practice.  In  the  exposition  we  find  duality  of  key :  G-major 
and  D-major.      In  the  development  there  is  ample  plur- 

*  Published  for  piano,  two  or  four  hands,  by  Peters,  Leipzig,  For  convenience  of 
reference  number  all  measures,  and  parts  of  measures,  consecutively.  The  number»  wit 
run  to  258. 


lt>U^- 


132 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


ality.  In  the  recapitulation  the  home  key,  G-major, 
dominates  throughout. 

Haydn's  second  theme,  though  more  definite  than 
PhiHp  Emanuel  Bach's,  is  still  somewhat  lacking  in  individ- 
uality. It  is  hardly  more  than  a  string  of  chords  and 
scales  having  more  tonal  interest  than  melodic  life.  It  is 
certainly  far  from  being  a  lyrical  melody  strikingly  con- 
trasted with  the  more  energetic  first  theme.  The  conclu- 
sion theme,  full  of  Haydnish  amiability,  grace,  and  good 
cheer,  is  much  more  definitely  melodious. 

Another  symptom  of  the  crudity  inseparable  from  early 
stages  of  artistic  evolution  is  the  shortness  and  rather 
mediocre  interest  of  the.  development  section.  The  first 
theme  is  briefly  but  monotonously  treated  in  measures 
109-126.  Then  comes  (127-132)  a  little  playing,  in  the 
bass,  with  the  small  figure  which  first  appeared  in  (44-45); 


Genn  (measures  44-45,) 


FIGURE  XXXVIII. 


i_t_l_^_i^^_^ i 


_t fL 


m=^ 


:| I L: 


=t=P=:t=?=t: 


rt 


«i-  ..  * 


i 


Development  (127  seq.) 

4L         J^  J^. 


A         -^-         -g- 


SONATA-FORM 


133 


and  later  (133-135),  an  inversion  of  this: 

FIGURE  XXXIX. 

Inversion  (133  seq.)         \ 

^  ^-^    i 4 


=F=^= 


^^^m 


-f^- 


-It 


i^ 


i=g=r 


=g==r 


Later  (136  seq.) 


#«  , 

r-a-j    ^^j--^ 

-J «^ 1 ^ 

^ag=^i=4=i=!=EN^ 

L   1              1              1               1             J              1 

The  rhythmic  figure  thus  estabhshed  is  made  to  do  duty 
in  the  extended  modulation  that  immediately  follows 
(136-143),  after  which  comes  (144-155)  a  reminiscence 
of  the  passage  first  used  just  before  the  second  theme; 
and  with  this  Haydn  returns  to  his  first  theme  and  enters 
on  the  recapitulation.  It  is  thus  almost  as  if,  after  stating 
his  themes,  he  was  at  a  loss  what  to  do  with  them,  and 
after  a  brief  dalliance,  from  which  little  novelty  results, 
hurried  on  to  the  restatement,  much  as  an  unimaginative 
preacher  tries  to  make  up  by  the  vehemence  with  which 
he  reasserts  his  text  for  his  failure  to  give  it  vivid  illustrar 
tion  and  suggestive  elucidation.  In  Beethoven's  sym- 
phonies the  development  is  usually  the  point  of  greatest 
interest.  But  it  is  of  course  not  fair  to  expect  of  a  pioneer 
the  last  fruits  of  culture.  Haydn  lays  down  in  such  move- 
ments as  the  present  one  the  essential  principles  of  form 


134  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

in  instrumental  music;  to  have  done  that,  with  whatever 
minor  shortcomings,  is  a  sufficient  claim  upon  our  admira- 
tion and  gratitude. 

The  shortcomings  of  Haydn's  work  are  those  natural 
to  his  circumstances  as  a  pioneer  and  to  certain  emo- 
tional limitations  of  his  temperament.  Compared  with 
Beethoven  he  is  lacking  both  in  profundity  of  feeling  and  in 
variety  of  style;  he  is  less  brilliant  and  less  polished  than 
Mozart.  But  on  the  other  hand,  Haydn  has  a  homely 
simplicity,  a  sort  of  childlike  charm,  all  his  own;  he  lives 
in  a  world  of  artistic  truth  untainted  by  sophistry,  uncom- 
plicated by  oversubtlety;  he  is  always  clear,  sincere, 
straightforward,  and  he  often  rises  to  nobility  and  true 
dignity.  Above  all,  he  has  the  peculiar  merit  of  having 
taken  up  a  sort  of  music  which  was  fragmentary  and  imma- 
ture, and  of  having  elevated  it  into  a  new,  an  essentially 
modern,  and  an  infinitely  promising  type  of  art.  Such  a 
fundamental  work  can  never  be  discredited  by  the  more 
brilliant  exploits  of  later  workers  who  have  the  indispens- 
able advantage  of  building  upon  it. 

II.  Mozart  and  the  Sonata-Form. 

Though  Haydn  (1732-1809)  was  not  only  by  many 
years  the  senior  of  Mozart  (1756-1791),  but  also  outlived 
him,  the  relations  between  the  two  were  most  cordial  and 
close.  Haydn  had  done  much  of  his  best  work  before 
1788,  when  Mozart  wrote  his  three  greatest  symphonies, 
and  so  may  be  said  to  have  served  as  Mozart's  model. 
Yet  he  in  turn  learned  much  from  his  younger  but  more 


SONATA-FORM  135 

brilliant  friend,  and  did  not  write  his  own  greatest  sym- 
phonies (the  twelve  so-called  "Salomon"  symphonies, 
which  were  WTitten  for  Salomon,  a  London  orchestral  con- 
ductor, in  1791  and  1794,  and  of  which  the  "Surprise"  is 
one)  until  after  Mozart's  untimely  death.  How  thoroughly 
each  man  respected  the  other,  we  know  from  their  own 
words.  Mozart  in  dedicating  his  six  finest  string  quar- 
tets to  Haydn,  said:  "It  was  due  from  me,  for  it  was  from 
him  that  I  learned  how  quartets  should  be  A\Titten."  As 
for  Haydn,  he  once  put  an  end  to  an  argument  on  the 
merits  and  defects  of  "Don  Giovanni"  by  remarking: 
"I  cannot  decide  the  questions  in  dispute,  but  this  I  know, 
that  Mozart  is  the  greatest  composer  in  the  world." 

Mozart  not  only  had  the  great  advantage  of  'building 
on  Haydn's  secure  foundations,  but  he  brought  to  the 
task  a  genius  much  more  supreme  than  his  predecessor's. 
From  his  earliest  composition,  a  minuet  \\Titten  when 
he  was  only  five  years  old,''  to  the  three  great  symphonies 
in  G-minor,  E-flat  major,  and  C-major  ("Jupiter")  pro- 
duced at  the  end  of  his  career,  a  movement  from  the 
first  of  which  we  shall  presently  study,  all  his  work  shows  a 
spontaneity  of  inspiration,  a  gi'aciousness  of  melody,  a 
stoutness  and  symmetry  of  musical  construction,  a  finish 
of  style,  a  depth  of  emotional  expression,  and  a  classical 
lucidity  and  purity,  perhaps  not  to  be  found  all  together 
in  the  work  of  any  other  musician.  Especially  does  he 
excel  Haydn  in  profundity  of  feeling,  versatility  of  resource, 
and    a    certain    aristocratic    distinction.     All    these    qualities 

'See  Mason's  "  Beethoven  and  His  Forerunners,"  pa^e  218. 


136 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


are   shown   in  his  great   G-minor   Symphony,  one  of   his 
supreme  masterpieces. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  14. 

Mozart :  Symphony  in  G-minor,  the  first  Tnovement.^ 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FIRST  MOVEMENT  OF 
MOZART'S  G-MINOR  SYMPHONY. 


Main  Divisions. 

Themes. 

Measures. 

Exposition  (A) 
comprising 

1-100 

First  theme 

1-27 

Trans. tioii,  on  a  subsidiary  theme ^    .    .    . 

28-42 

Duality  of  Harmony 

Second  theme,  m  relative  major  key 

Conclusion  theme,  built  on  first  theme 

Cadence  formulas  emphasizing  the  key  of  B-flat  .    .    . 
Modulation 

44-72 
72-88 
88-99 
100. 

Development     Sec- 
tion,   or    Free    Fan- 
tasia (B) 

101-165 

Plurality  of  Har- 
mony 

Modulation  continued 

First  theme  in  various  keys 

First  theme,  alternating  between  bass  and  treble,  with 
contrapuntal  treatment  of  the  transition  theme  in  "di- 
minution."     

Cadence  in  dominant  of  original  key  emphasized     .    . 
Rhythm  of  First  theme  variously  used 

101-103 
104-115 

115-134 
135-138 
139-165 

Recapitulation  (A) 

165-293 

165-191 

Unity  of  Harmony 

Transition,  on  subsidiary  theme 

Second  theme,  in  G-minor  (tonic) 

Conclusion  theme.  First  theme 

191-225 
227-260 

260-275 

Cadences-formulas,  emphazising  G-minor 

275-285 

Coda 

On  First  theme 

286-299 

There  is  no  slow  introduction,  as  in  Haydn's  "Sur- 
prise" Symphony,  but  there  is  a  short  coda.  A  little 
detailed  comparison  with  the  Haydn  movement  will  prove 
interesting.     There    is    none    of    the    rather    meaningless 

^  Arrangement  'or  piano,  two  hands,  in  the  Peters  edition.  Number  the  measures 
throughout.  There  are  three  hundred  and  seven.  The  general  structure  will  be  seen  at  a 
glance  in  the  appended  tabular  view. 


SONATA-FORM  137 

passage  work  which  Haydn  uses  in  his  transition  from  the 
first  to  the  second  theme  ;  instead  there  is  a  subsidiary 
theme  (measures  28-42)  which  in  spite  of  its  secondary 
formal  importance  is  vigorous,  strongly  characterized  music. 
•Instead  of  an  entirely  new  theme  for  conclusion  (Haydn, 
81-93)  we  find  an  adaptation  of  the  characteristic  rhythm 
of  the  first  theme  (72-88)  fulfilling  the  function  of  con- 
clusion theme  —  to  emphasize  the  close  of  the  first  section 
of  the  movement  —  by  harping  constantly  on  the  tonic 
and  dominant  chords.  This  adaptation  of  familiar  matter 
to  a  new  purpose  is  ingenious.  The  return  to  the  first 
theme,  after  the  development  section,  is  beautifully  man- 
aged. Over  a  held  D  in  the  bass,  beginning  at  measure 
160,  the  upper  voices  weave  a  gradually  descending  passage 
out  of  the  motive  of  the  first  theme  (three  notes  only).  There 
is  a  slight  retarding,  a  sense  of  decreasing  momentum, 
until,  with  the  unobstrusive  entrance  of  the  theme  in 
measure  165,  a  new  start  is  taken,  and  the  recapitulation 
goes  merrily  onward.  The  apparently  unpremeditated 
nature  of  this  entrance  (though  of  course  it  was  carefully 
planned)  is  charming. 

In  the  recapitulation,  the  subsidiary  theme  which 
first  appeared  at  28-42,  enters  at  191,  and  is  made  the 
subject  of  a  considerable  episode.  It  appears  in  the  bass 
at  198.  Note  the  sequence  at  202-203,  and  204-205. 
The^  second  theme,  on  its  second  appearance  (227),  is  not 
only  put  in  the  tonic  key  of  G,  but  is  changed  from  major 
to  minor.  This  gives  rise  to  an  interesting  change  in  its 
expression.     Instead  of  being  merely  tender  and  ingenuous, 


138  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

as  its  first  and  major  form  was,  it  takes  on  now  a  certain 
air  of  mystery  and  of  resignation  or  controlled  pathos. 
The  conclusion  theme  (260)  is  also  now  put  into  the  minor 
mode.  The  coda  is  short,  and  contains  first  a  final  sug- 
gestion of  the  main  subject  of  the  movement,  and  the 
necessary  cadences  for  closing  it  firmly  in  the  home  key. 

III.  Mozart's  Artistic  Skill. 

This  movement  affords  a  remarkable  example  of 
Mozart's  power  to  infuse  endless  varietv  into  the  details 
of  his  work,  without  ever  impairing  its  coherence  and 
fundamental  unity.  He  shows  here,  in  short,  that  remark- 
able fecundity  of  imagination,  constantly  subordinated  to 
the  demands  of  clearness  and  musical  logic,  which  gives 
all  his  music  a  fascinating  variety  that  never  degenerates 
into  miscellaneousness; 

For  convenience  in  analysis,  we  may  briefly  examine 
first  the  elements  of  variety  and  later  the  underlying  unity 
(though  it  should  be  remembered  throughout  that  in  the 
work  itself  the  two  qualities  are  intertwined,  so  to  speak, 
and  affect  us  co-operatively).  Thus  in  the  capital  matter 
of  rhythm,  for  example,  the  real  master  of  construction 
always  takes  care  to  maintain  the  unity  of  the  fundamental 
meter  with  which  he  starts  out,  and  builds  up  a  variety  of 
rhythms  on  this  uniform  basis  by  making  different  themes 
group  the  elementary  beats  in  different  ways:  as  Mozart, 
in  this  movement,  keeps  his  measure  of  four  quarter-notes 
throughout,  but  makes  the  rhythm  of  his  first  theme  out 
of  quarters  and  eighths,  and  that  of  his  second  theme  largely 


SONATA-FORM 


189 


out  of  dotted  halves  and  quarters.  An  actual  change  of 
measure  in  a  new  theme,  such  as  we  find  in  many  modern 
composers,  is  often  a  sign  of  deficient  mental  concentration, 
a  kind  of  incoherence  in  which  variety  is  secured  at  the 
expense  of  unity.  The  true  masters  drive  their  unity  and 
their  variety,  so  to  speak,  abreast. 

Note  then  in  the  first  place,  the  contrasts  between  the 
three  chief  themes  of  the  movement,  viz.:  the  first  theme, 
the  subsidiary  theme  that  does  duty  in  the  transition  (^-42), 
and  the  second  theme.  Their  rhythmic  diversity  may  be 
noted  at  a  glance  in  the  following  comparative  table,  in 
which  the  rhythm  only  of  four  measures  of  each  theme  is 
set  down. 

FIGURE  XL. 


L^^ 


First. 


Subsidiary, &- 


-<S>-r- 


/     |j    J    J    .|  J    J    J    X 


Second. 


X-J- 


0     0     0     0 


-i 


J.  .N 


J 


A  reference  back  to  the  first  movement  of  the  Haydn 
"Surprise"  Symphony  will  show  Mozart's  advance  in 
respect  of  rhythmical  diversity. 

A  parallel  advance  in  diversity  of  style    is  noteworthy.     0)~v^> 
Haydn's   movement   is   steadily  homophonic  in   style,  and  ^ 
grows    somewhat    monotonous    for    that    reason.     Mozart  '  ^^^ 
sets  off  against  his  homophonic  exposition  section  a  delight- 
fully clean-cut  and  vigorous  polyphonic  passage  founded 


no  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

on  the  first  theme  in  the  development  section  of  the  move- 
ment (115-134),  and  another  similar  passage  in  the 
recapitulation  (the  new  treatment  of  the  subsidiary, 
191-217.).  ^ 

Again,  Mozart  uses  skillfully  the  possibilities  for  variety 

•-^  opened  up  to  the  composer  by  modulation  and  setting  off 
against  one  another  of  different  keys.  A  radical  and  fas- 
cinating change  of  coloring  is  also  obtained  by  transposing 
j  the  second  and  conclusion  themes,  on  their  final  appear- 
',  ance  (227  and  260),  from  maior  to  minor.  They  are 
thus  exhibited,  as  it  were,  in  a  new  light,  while  retaining 
their  essential  character  sufficiently  to  be  perfectly  recog- 
nizable. 

Underneath  all  this  charming  play  of  fancy,  the  funda- 
mental plan  of  the  movement  is  as  clear  as  the  outline  of 
a    mountain    range    under    all    the    luxuriant    foliage    that 

"^  clothes  its  slopes.  This  clearness  of  form  is  due  chiefly 
to  two  causes,  a  fine  logic  in  the  use  of  themes,  and  a  care- 
ful adjustment  of  keys.  The  closeness  with  which  Mozart 
sticks  to  his  thematic  texts  may  in  some  cases  at  first  sight 
escape  us,  but  when  we  come  to  realise  it  through  careful 
dissection,  we  cannot  but  be  profoundly  impressed  by 
the  intellectual  grasp  it  indicates.  Thus,  the  passage 
at  measures  66-67  is  not  new,  but  is  made  from  that  of 
48-49  inverted.  The  conclusion  theme  (72-88)  is  not 
made  from  new  matter,  as  is  usual  with  Haydn,  but  is 
derived  from  the  little  three-note  motive  of  the  first  theme. 
The  entire  development  is  wrought  out  of  new  manipula- 
j    tions  of   the  same  theme,  as  is  also  the  coda.     The  long 


SONATA-FORM  141 

transition  in  the  recapitulation  (191-225)  is  made  entirely 
from  the  subsidiary.  There  is  here,  in  a  word,  none  of 
that  "clattering  of  the  dishes"  between  the  courses.  The 
economy  of  the  master  is  everywhere  observable;  irrele- 
vancies  are  excluded;  there  is  no  superfluity,  no  surplusage, 
no  prolixity  and  wordiness.  |  Every  measure  fulfils  its  ^ 
f"-^  purpose  in  the  simplest  and  most  direct  way,  and  justifies 
its  presence  by  its  reference  to  the  essential  thematic  ideas 
of  the  work. 

Unity  of  key  is  secured  by  a  careful  observation  of  the  | 
main   traditions  of  the  sonata-form  in  the  matter  of  the 
distribution   of    tonalities.     The  exposition  shows  the  cus-  ' 
tomary  quality  of  key,  tonic    (G-minor)   being  contrasted  ' 
with    relative    major    (B-flat   major)  ^     The    development, 
as    we    have    already   seen,    exemplifies    plurality   of   key. 
The   recapitulation   emphasises    throughout  the  home  key 
of   G-minor,    thus   ending   the   movement   with   the   fitting 
impression  of  tonal  unity.     A  glance  at  measures  38-42, 
72-99,  134-138,  146-165,  221-225,  and  260-307  will  show 
how  much  pains  Mozart  has  taken  to  emphasise  his  keys 
at  all  important  points  in  the  design.     The  emphasis,  as  * 
in  the  case  of  Haydn,  is  superfluous  for  modern  ears,  but 
was   very   necessary   for   the   audiences   addressed   by   the 
early  advocates  of  so  complex  a  scheme  of  musical  design. 
Altogether    then,   we  see  in  such   a  movement  as   the 
present,  Mozart  taking  the  sonata-form  a  step  in  advance 
of  where  Haydn  had  left  it,  and  while  preserving  its  essen- 

•  This  is  according  to  custom  in  movements  written  in  minor  keys.  The  second  theme 
is  in  such  cases  usually  put  ia  the  relative  major  mstead  of  ia  the  domioaut.  (See  the 
chapter  on  "Folk-Song. "> 


142  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

tial  outline,  filling  it  with  the  wealth  of  detail  which  his 
luxuriant  fancy  suggested.  Later  it  will  become  clear 
that  he  was  thus  preparing  it  for  the  still  further  elabora- 
tion of  an  even  greater  master  of  construction  —  Beethoven 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

D.  G.  Mason:  *'  Beethoven  and  His  Forerunners/^ 
Chapters  V  and  VI,  C.  H.  H.  Parry:  "  The  Evolution 
of  the  Art  of  Music, "  Chapter  XL  E.  Dickinson:  *'  The 
Study  of  the  History  of  Music/'  Chapters  XXIV  and 
XXV.     W.  H.  Hadow:  ''Sonata  Form/' 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE   SLOW  MOVEMENT. 

I.  Varieties  of  Form. 

In  the  classical  sonata  the  usual  arrangement  of  move- 
ments was  as  follows:  (1)  Allegro  (in  "Sonata-form"): 
(2)  Adagio  or  Minuet:  (3)  Finale  (usually  a  rondo). 

Occasionally  —  as  in  Mozart's  Piano  Sonata  in  A- 
major  —  the  slow  movement,  in  the  form  of  a  theme 
and  variations,  was  placed  at  the  beginning,  and  in  that 
case  the  order  would  be  (1)  Theme  and  Variations,  (2) 
Minuet  (3)  Finale.  The  symphony,  which,  it  must  be 
remembered,  was  a  sonata  on  a  large  scale  —  always 
began  with  a  movement  in  sonata-form,  and  had  four 
movements.  Although  the  sonata  was  subject  to  many 
outside  influences  —  most  important  of  which  were  poly- 
phony and  the  old  overture  and  other  operatic  forms  — 
its  two  main  sources  were  dance  tunes  and  folk-songs. 
ITie  evolution  of  the  dance  tune  through  Bach's  poly- 
phonic gavottes,  sarabandes,  etc.,  has  already  been  traced 
in  Chapters  IV,  V,  and  VI,  and  the  influence  of  the  dance 
on  the  first  movement  in  Chapters  VIII  and  IX. 

The  slow  movement  is  ultimately  derived  from  the 
folk-song,  and,  while  more  subject  to  operatic  influence 
than  were  the  other   movements,  it  still  retains  something 

143 


144  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

of  that  simple  lyric  quality  that  distinguished  it  in  its  prim- 
itive form.  Unlike  the  other  movements  of  the  sonata  and 
symphony,  however,  the  slow  movement  has  no  settled 
form:  i.e.,  while  we  speak  of  first-movement,  or  sonata- 
form,  of  the  rondo  form,  and  of  the  minuet  form,  we  do  not 
speak  thus  of  "slow  movement  form."  For  in  the  slow 
movement  style  rather  than  form  is  of  greatest  importance. 
On  account  of  its  slow  tempo  it  is  shorter  than  the  first 
movement,  and  consequently  not  so  dependent  for  intelli- 
gibility on  formal  structure.  Its  themes,  also,  are  song- 
like in  character,  and  song  themes,  being  in  themselves 
complete,  do  not  lend  themselves  readily  to  development  — 
do  not  generate  new  material  —  as  has  already  been  pointed 
out.  As  a  consequence  the  slow  movement  is  usually  writ- 
ten in  what  we  call  a  "sectional"  form:  i.e.,  a  series  of 
sections  following  one  another  according  to  whatever  order 
or  system  the  composer  may  choose.  The  most  common 
use  is,  however,  the  form  employed  in  the  minuet.  But  in 
slow  movements  the  long  song  themes,  somewhat  elegiac  in 
style  and  full  of  sentiment,  make  the  mood  of  each  section 
of  supreme  importance,  and  throw  the  formal  element  into 
the  background.  So  that,  while  the  slow  movement  usually 
falls  under  some  one  of  the  common  forms  already  dis- 
cussed, it  often  modifies  them  in  one  way  or  another. 

There  are  rare  instances  of  developed  ternary  form  in 
the  slow  movements  of  Mozart's  pianoforte  sonatas.  The 
Andante  of  the  Sonata  inB-flat  (no.  10  in  Schirmer's  edition), 
has  a  development  section.  It  comprises  only  nineteen  meas- 
ures, however,  and  its  effect  as  a  section  germinating  from 


THE  SLOW  MOVEMENT 


145 


the  exposition  is  somewhat  lessened  by  the  scheme  of 
repeats,  which  is  as  follows:  A  :||:  B.  A.  :||.  The  use 
of  rondo  form  in  the  slow  movement  will  be  discussed  in  a 
later  chapter. 

II.  Slow  Movements  of  Pianoforte  Sonatas. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  in  Chapters  VI  and 
VII  to  the  lack  of  sustaining  power  in  the  tone  of  the  piano- 
forte of  Haydn  and  Mozart's  day,  and  the  consequent  use 
of  ornament  in  their  pianoforte  music.  In  Figure  XLI 
(a)  is  shown  the  beginning  of  the  andante  of  Mozart's 
sonata  referred  to  above,  and  at  (6)  will  be  found  the  cor- 
responding portion  of  the  restatement  in  the  same  move- 
ment. These  two  quotations  should  be  compared  with  the 
corresponding  portions  of  the  two  pieces  that  serve  as  ex- 
amples for  analysis  with  this  chapter.  This  comparison 
will  reveal  how  much  more  highly  ornamented  was  the 
music  written  for  the  piano  than  that  for  instruments  with 
sustained  tone. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  quotation  from  Mozart  is  in 
strophic  form;  each  phrase  of  two  measures  constitutes, 
as  it  were,  a  poetic  line,  the  second  of  which  closes  with 


(a) 


FIGURE  XLI. 


Andante  cantabile. 


3=i 


^=1 


^^ 


^^w 


i2#: 


e 


^=r 


e 


^#- 


146 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


R=! 


W. 


-• — #- 


^^ 


i=«=S^=l^?|i^ 


t—^ 


:t^i^-^^S- 


tt 


i^^ 


S: 


f^^ 


i3 


SS^5^^=t:«- 


'f^=% 


:*=* 


dolce. 


^^?^P^^f3=5^f^^ 


1 


^^^fa^^i 


g=^^F^^r£:gt*zgji 


THE  SLOW  MOVEMENT 


147 


^izztiSi 


--^^t=\ 


m^ 


-f-\ 


zi 


Si^ 


ip^g^^ 


^ 


-J^^ 


I 


a  half  cadence,  and  the  last  with  a  full  cadence  or  period. 
In  this  respect  it  follows  the  old  folk-song  type,  and,  indeed, 
that  model  serves  for  the  great  majority  of  lyric  themes 
in  sonatas  and  symphonies.  But  in  its  initial  qualities 
this  melody  shows  a  great  advance  over  tunes  like  "Barbara 
Allen  "  and  "Polly  Oliver,"  an  advance  due  to  the  flexi- 
bility to  which  both  melody  and  harmony  had  attained 
in  Mozart's  time,  and  to  that  freedom  of  technique  pro- 
vided by  the  piano  as  compared  with  the  voice. 

These  quotations  from  Mozart  are  from  a  sonata  move- 
ment which  is,  on  the  whole,  above  the  formal  average  of 
the  pianoforte  pieces  of  that  period.  Many  of  them  were 
excessively  ornamented.  In  Figure  XLII  are  shown  two 
quotations  from  a  sonata  of  Haydn,  in  the  latter  of  which 
the  ornaments  are  profuse. 

In    spite    of    the    somewhat    artificial    atmosphere    that 


{a) 
A dagio  cantabile. 


FIGURE  XLII. 


^^-•-l^=f^=*^ 


'J 


i 


-^ 


— r«ft — •- 


^*- 


JiL 


-^^- 


^^ 


^^^ 


W 


-f2- 


,etc. 


i 


148 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


surrounds  much  of  the  pianoforte  music  of  this  period  there 
is,  in  the  best  specimens  of  it,  a  charming  formal  beauty. 
It  is  within  its  own  sphere  genuine  and  true  to  life.  One 
has  to  consider  the  kind  of  society  that  it  represents,  as  well 
as  the  status  of  music  in  that  society.  The  art  was  not, 
at  that  time,  free  enough,  nor  practical  enough,  to  deal  with 
deep  emotions;  people  looked  on  it  as  a  refined  sort  of 
amusement.  Not  until  Beethoven  had  written  his  music 
did  its  possibilities  as  a  vehicle  for  deep  human  feeling 
and  experience  become  evident. 


III.  The  String  Quartet. 

It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Haydn  that  the  string 
quartet^  came  into  being;  a  fact  for  which  we  may  easily 
account  by  examining  the  instrumental  parts  of  orchestral 
compositions    before    Haydn's    time.     We    shall    find    the 

'  The  instruments  employed  in  the  string  quartet  are  two  violins  (first  and  second) 
viola,  and  violoncello. 


THE  SLOW  MOVEMENT  149 

'cello,  for  example,  playing  for  the  most  part  merely  the 
bass  notes  that  support  the  superstructure  of  the  orchestra, 
and  consequently  entirely  unaccustomed  to  individual 
parts  of  any  difficulty.  Another  obstacle  in  the  path  of 
the  string  quartet  was  the  slow  development  of  the  viola, 
which  only  gradually  emerged  from  the  older  and  more 
cumbersome  types,  such  as  the  viola  d'amour  and  viola 
da  Iraccio.  Haydn  began  by  writing  little  quartets  of 
the  simplest  possible  kind  —  the  first  movement  of  the 
first  quartet  contains  only  twenty-four  measures  —  but 
by  constant  practice  throughout  his  long  life  he  attained 
a  complete  mastery  of  the  form.  In  his  early  quartets 
he  usually  wrote  five  movements,  two  of  them  minuets, 
but  he  soon  settled  on  the  regular  four  movement  form 
which  has  remained  ever  since  as  the  usually  accepted 
model. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  15. 

Haydn:  Adagio  in  E-flat  major  from  the  String  Quartet  * 
in  G-major,  op.  77,  No.  1. 

This  Adagio  is  thoroughly  characteristic  of  Haydn's 
best  style  of  writing.  It  is  without  the  elaborate  and 
somewhat  diffuse  treatment  we  observed  in  the  trio  of 
his  "Andante  with  Variations"  (See  Chapter  VII),  nor 
does  it  depend  for  its  effect  on  the  much  more  artistic  use 
of  ornament  employed  by  Mozart  in  the  Andante  quoted 
in  Figure    XLI.      Almost  everything  in    this  composition 

'  Published  in  miniature  score,  Payne  edition,  price  20  cents.      This  quartet  also 
appears  among  Haydn  s  works  in  the  form  of  a  sonata  for  violin  and  piano. 


150  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

germinates  from  the  two  motives  given  out  in  measures  1-2 
and  3-4,  and  it  should  be  noted  that  each  of  these  motives 
is  sufficiently  pronounced  in  character  to  serve  the  purposes 
of  generation,  and  that  the  theme,  as  a  whole,  is  not  by 
any  means  a  perfect  lyric  melody  such  as  will  be  found 
in  our  second  example  for  analysis. 

FIGURE  XLIII. 


i:l2eEg^j^Eg,^^g^^^j^=gEJ'=^^gj 


:t=: 


f^z^^^^-"'— ]^^ife|j| 


d: 


:t:: 


:1^ 


1 — * — • 

The  first  of  these  motives  (see  Figure  XLIII,  measures 
1-2)  is  easily  traced  throughout  the  whole  composition, 
since  the  changes  that  are  made  in  it  are  largely  changes 
in  key,  but  the  second  motive  (measures  3-4)  almost  im- 
mediately evolves  into  something  new.  This  may  be 
observed  in  measure  11,  where  the  rhythm  of  the  passage 
at  measure  3  is  changed,  the  melody  being  given  to  the 
left  hand.  The  second  part  (or  stanza)  of  the  melody, 
beginning  at  measure  13,  uses  chiefly  the  phrase  from 
measure  2,  which  will  be  found  again  in  the  dominant  — 
to  which  key  this  section  tends  —  at  measures  21-22. 
Even  the  passage  at  23  is  an  elaboration  of  that  at  11,  and 
this  same  original  motive  is  lengthened  into  a  delightful 
bit  of  by-play  at  measures  35-37.  The  close  in  C-major 
at  42,  with  its  accents  transferred  to  the  fourth  beat  of 
the  measure,  should  be  noted,  while  the  sudden  change  of 


THE  SLOW   MOVEMENT  151 

key  after  the  pause  was,  at  that  time,  almost  a  revolutionary 
modulation,  and  sounds  more  like  Beethoven  than  Haydn 
(see,  for  example,  the  sudden  and  complete  change  of  key 
in  the  coda  of  the  first  movement  of  the  "Eroica"  Sym- 
phony). The  use  of  the  motive  from  measure  2  at  45-54 
and  the  gradual  elimination  of  its  melodic  quality  until 
only  its  rhythm  remains  (53-54)  is  an  interesting  example 
of  a  familiar  process  in  music  (see  Chapter  VIII).  This 
gradual  dying  away  and  ceasing  of  motion  is  also  a  familiar 
process  at  this  point  in  a  movement,  providing  as  it  does  a 
sense  of  expectancy  and  preparation  for  the  re-entrance  of 
the  main  theme.  The  restatement  begins  at  measure  55 
and  as  is  customary  retains  the  original  key  instead  of  mod- 
ulating to  the  dominant  as  did  the  first  section.  The  coda 
begins  at  82  and,  according  to  Haydn's  usual  plan,  presents 
a  kind  of  reminiscence  of  the  main  subject,  as  if  in  tender 
farewell. 

IV.  General  Characteristics. 

While  this  movement  does  not  reach  the  heights  of 
lyric  beauty  attained  by  Mozart  in  the  Andante  which 
we  shall  analyze  in  a  moment,  it  is,  nevertheless,  a 
thoroughly  interesting  and  really  beautiful  piece  of  music. 
Our  attention  is  constantly  enlisted  by  fresh  glimpses  of 
the  theme,  or  by  new  harmonies;  the  ornamentation  all 
grows  naturally  out  of  the  structure  and  is  not  laid  on 
for  its  own  sake,  and  the  melody  itself  is  expressive  and 
tender.  Furthermore,  the  themes  and  their  treatment 
are  characterized   by  a  perfect  adaptability   to   the  string 


152 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


quartet,  for  even  in  the  pianoforte  version,  we  can  observe 
how  interesting  is  the  part  given  to  each  instrument.  Here, 
just  as  in  a  perfect  story  or  a  perfect  poem,  there  is  nothing 
redundant,  nothing  that  has  not  some  part  in  the  main  pur- 
pose of  the  work.  And  this  combination  of  placid  beauty 
with  perfection  of  form  makes  what  is  called  the  "Classic'* 
in  music.  Especially  do  we  find  here  an  entire  absence  of 
those  perfunctory  passages  that  occur  in  the  movement  of 
the  "Surprise"  Symphony  discussed  in  the  last  chapter. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  this  piece  is  immeasurably  finer 
than  any  movement  of  its  kind  produced  up  to  that  time, 
save  alone  those  of  Mozart;  and  the  advance  is  not  only  in 
method  but  in  the  essence  of  the  idea  itself.  There  is  a 
geniality  and  warmth  about  this  music  that  marks  a  new  era. 
Bach  was  more  profound,  but  more  isolated;  here  we  have 
simple  human  sentiment  and  a  kind  of  naive  charm  that 
distinguished  Haydn's  music  from  that  of  all  other  composers. 

V.  Form  of  Haydn's  Adagio. 

This  Adagio  of  Haydn  is  a  good  illustration  of  what 
we  have  called  "sectional  form."  It  may  be  tabulated 
as  follows: 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  SECTIONS  IN  HAYDN'S  ADAGIO. 


Section    in    E- 
flat  measures  1-16 


Section  in  the 
dominant  (B-flat) 
16-30 


Duality 


Section  of  free 
modulation  SO-Sl 


Plurality 


Double  Section 
in  E-flat  55-82 
Coda  83-91. 

Unity 


THE   SLOW   MOVEMENT  153 

Section  four  contains  practically  the  same  material  as 
Sections  1  and  2,  with  its  last  half  in  the  tonic  instead  of 
the  dominant.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  harmonic 
plan  of  the  movement  is  that  of  '*  sonata-form, "  but  that 
the  first  two  sections  (which  would  constitute  the  exposition) 
are  not  repeated,  as  was  the  invariable  custom  in  Haydn'? 
first  movements.  Yet  the  resemblance  is  quite  close,  for 
the  third  part  is  like  a  development  section  and  the  fourth 
like  a  restatement.  Still  there  is  not  here  that  decided 
difference  between  the  three  sections  of  exposition,  devel- 
opment, and  recapitulation  that  is  essential  to  sonata- 
form. 

VI.  Mozart  and  the  Classic  Style. 

The  slow  movements  of  the  symphonies  and  string 
quartets  of  Mozart,  who  represents  the  culmination  of  the 
classic  type  in  music,  are  thoroughly  characteristic  of  the 
ideals  of  the  classical  period.  Unlike  the  rustic  Haydn, 
Mozart  was  accustomed  from  his  childhood  to  the  atmos- 
phere of  courts  and  lived  in  the  favor  of  princes.  His 
music  is  never  brusque,  nor  does  it  have  the  homely  wit 
and  sentiment  of  Haydn  —  it  does  not  smack  of  the  soil  — 
but  it  possesses  a  certain  ideal  beauty  and  elegance,  a  cer- 
tain finesse  and  finely  pointed  wit  that  were  beyond 
Haydn's  powers.  Yet  these  ideally  beautiful  composi- 
tions of  Mozart  are  absolutely  spontaneous.  We  are 
never  admitted  into  his  work-shop;  we  never  trace  a  sign 
of  his  labor;  his  music  seems  to  have  sprung  full  born 
from  his  brain.     He  is  the  type  of  the  consummate  artist 


154  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

who  deals  with  the  language  of  music  as  easily  as  an  ordi- 
nary mortal  deals  with  his  native  tongue.  He  was  not  a 
philosopher  like  Bach,  nor  a  great  man  like  Beethoven. 
We  find  no  evidences  of  his  having  been,  outside  his  music, 
particularly  distinguished  from  his  fellows,  for  his  improvi- 
dence and  fondness  for  amusement  are  matters  of  record. 
When  we  think  of  Beethoven's  music  we  think  of  Beethoven; 
Mozart  and  his  art  are  distinct  and  separate/ 

At  this  point  the  question  naturally  arises:  "Just  what 
do  we  mean  by  classic  beauty?"  In  a  general  way  a  book, 
a  picture  or  a  piece  of  music  becomes  a  "classic"  when  it 
is  universally  accepted  as  a  model  of  its  kind.  In  this 
sense  Grey's  "Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard"  is  a  classic; 
so  are  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address,  the  Sistine  Madonna, 
and  the  Apollo  Belvedere.  The  same  term  is  applied  to 
Beethoven's  Fifth  Symphony,  and  to  Schumann's  "Trau- 
merei. "  These  works  of  art  represent  many  varieties 
of  mood,  of  style,  and  of  structure,  and  the  application  to 
them  all  of  the  term  "classic"  is  a  very  broad  usage. 
"Classic,"  as  opposed  to  "Romantic,"  in  music,  means 
something  quite  different  and  much  more  definite.  It 
refers  to  purity  of  outline  and  simplicity  of  harmony; 
to  pure  beauty  of  sound  as  opposed  to  luxuriance  or  the 
poignancy  produced  by  dissonances;  to  clear  and  trans- 
slucent  colors  and  definite  lines  curved  in  beauty,  rather 
than  to  picturesqueness.  Classical  music  tells  its  story 
clearly  and  definitely  and  does  not  depend  on  suggestion, 
as  does,  for  example,  the  romantic  music  of  Schumann. 

1  See  Mason's  "Beethoven  and  his  ForerunnCTS,"  pages  232-240. 


THE  SLOW  MOVEMENT 


155 


Our  illustrations  from  Haydn  have  revealed  how  this 
classic  spirit  gradually  approached  its  culmination.  In  his 
Andante  with  Variations  there  is  something  of  the  classic 
spirit,  though  the  occasional  diffuse  ornamentation  of  the 
trio  theme  mars  the  purity  of  the  composition.  In  the 
movement  from  the  "Surprise"  Symphony  there  is  too 
much  that  is  rustic  to  admit  of  its  being  considered  alto- 
gether classic.  But  a  fine  example  of  the  classic  type  is 
afforded  by  the  first  movement  of  Mozart's  G-minor  Sym- 
phony, discussed  in  Chapter  IX.  The  distinction  may  be 
made  still  more  clear  by  reference  to  Figure  XLIV,  con- 
taining (a)  the  opening  phrases  of  the  Finale  of  Tschai- 
kowsky's  "Pathetique"  Symphony,  and  (b)  a  short  quota- 
tion from  Schumann's  Novelette,  op.  21,  No.  1. 


FIGURE  XLIV 


y — 


(^) 


'EEg 


/ 


/ 


=^^>=^g  - 


^- 


:lafc=^: 


i=^-^-^ 


r 


i.  b^  ^    i 


/  U  ^ 


t% 


9?,e^ 


The  poignancy  of  the  passage  from  Tschaikowsky  is 
remarkable,  and  the    opening   chord,  modulating  at   once 


156  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

to  another  key  than  the  tonic,  produces  a  feeling  of  unrest 
which  is  further  intensified,  as  the  piece  proceeds,  by  harsh 
dissonances.  The  quotation  from  Schumann's  Novelette 
is  notable  for  its  brusqueness,  and  for  the  roughness  of 
its  dissonances.  Effects  like  these  would  not  have  been 
tolerated  in  Mozart's  time,  and  illustrate  the  tendency 
of  music  to  become  more  personal  and  to  seek  to  express 
a  wider  range  of  human  feeling.  A  comparison  of  these 
two  quotations  with  the  opening  of  the  andante  by  Mozart 
will  reveal  how  far  apart  are  the  ideals  of  classic  and 
romantic  music. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  16. 

Mozart:  Andante  from  String  Quartet  ^  in  C-major,  dedi- 
cated to  Haydn. 

In  Chapter  IX  reference  has  been  made  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Haydn  and  Mozart  on  each  other.  Mozart 
undoubtedly  profited  by  Haydn's  labors  in  the  quartet  form, 
and  Haydn,  in  turn,  shows  in  his  latest  quartets  that  he 
had  learned  something  from  his  younger  contemporary. 
Ever  since  this  form  came  into  being  it  has  been  a  favo- 
rite one  with  composers,  for  in  it  they  are  able  to  express 
musical  ideas  in  all  their  purity  and  divested  of  extraneous 
influences.  For  this  reason  the  quartet  became  the  medium 
for  their  most  advanced  ideas.  Both  Mozart  and  Beethoven 
wrote  quartets  that  were  far  in  advance  of  their  time,  and 
that  were  subjected  to  harsh  criticism  by  their  contem- 
poraries.    The    introduction    to    the    quartet    from    which 

'  Published  in  miniature  score,  Payne  edition,  price  20  cents. 


THE  SLOW   MOVEMENT 


lb\ 


this  andante  is  taken  is  a  case  in  point.  The  harmonies, 
within  the  space  of  a  few  measures,  wander  far  from  the 
home  key,  and  commit  what  were  then  unpardonable 
sins  of  cacophony.  A  brief  quotation  from  the  beginning 
of  this  introduction  is  shown  in  Figure  XLV.  The  harsh 
dissonances  between  the  A-fiat  in  the  first  measure  of  the 
viola  part  and  the  succeeding  A-natural  in  the  first  violin 
part  should  be  noted. 

The  vague  harmonies  of  this  introduction  serve  as  an 
admirable  foil  to  the  bright  opening  of  the  first  movement. 
The  aesthetic  purpose  they  serve  is  one  of  which  Beethoven 

FIGURE  XLV. 


{a) 

Adngto. 

-J^ 

—55 

r^-^ 

J.    S^ 

^l 

It  r-  ^ 

etc. 

H — ■ 

2^4=^t^r-r-f= 

00^ 

^- ' 

t^:^,J-^ 

r^ 

(^) 


Allegro 


E=^=^fE 


-0—^ 


etc. 


also  made  constant  use  when  he  desired  to  enhance  the 
charm  of  a  passage  by  vivid  contrast  of  color.  The  open- 
ing theme  of  the  movement  (shown  at  (b)  in  Figure  XLV) 
will  be  seen  to  be  foreshadowed  in  the  introduction 
(Figure  XLV  (a)  ;  viola  part,  measure  3,  first  violin  part, 
measures  4-5).  From  the  point  of  view  of  both  harmonv 
and  thematic  development  this  introduction  is  therefore 
extremelv  modern. 


168 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


Of  this  andante  by  ]Mozart  we  can  say  unreservedly 
that  it  is  a  perfect  specimen  of  pure  classic  beauty.  Its 
translucent  harmonies,  its  exquisite  curve  of  melody,  its 
clear-  outlines,  all  make  it  a  model  of  its  kind.  The  chief 
theme,  extending  to  measure  12  (see  Figure  XLVI),  should 
be  compared  with  those  of  Handel,  Haydn  and  Mozart  shown 
in  previous  chapters.  This  comparison  will  reveal  an  import- 
ant element  in  the  present  theme,  namely,  the  element  of 
organization.     In  our  earliest  musical  examples  quoted  in 


Andante  cantabile. 


FIGURE  XLVI. 


tr 


#=t 


V-^- 


^ 


•-~^- 


i 


=p=*= 


s 


cres.f 


^fe 


33 


-•— ^- 


/ 


-O- 


/ 


^ 


?«- 


3tit 


I 


the  first  two  chapters  there  was  a  conspicuous  lack  of 
variety.  "Three  Blind  Mice"  contented  itself  with  two 
motives,  which  were  repeated  over  and  over  again. 
"Barbara  Allen"  was  made  up  of  one  rhythmic  figure, 
constantly  reiterated,  and  even  in  the  themes  of  Philip 
Emanuel  Bach  and  Haydn  there  were  many  rhythmic 
repetitions.  In  the  Haydn  quartet  movement  there  were  but 
two  motives,  and  while  they  were  used  with  the  greatest 
skill,  the  theme  itself  was  entirely  constructed  from  them. 


THE  SLOrV  MOVEMENT  159 

In  Mozart's  theme,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  hardly  a  sin- 
gle repetition  of  rhythm.  An  examination  of  the  melody 
will  reveal  how  great  a  variety  u  imparted  to  it  by  the 
many  different  rhythmic  figures.  Yet  there  is  no  sense 
of  vagueness  about  it;  it  holds  together  firmly.  This 
quality  distinguishes  all  highly  organized  melodies,  and  is 
never  found  in  folk-music.  The  same  element  may  be  ob- 
served in  a  developed  language  in  which  words  have  come 
to  be  flexible  in  their  meaning,  and  more  or  less  complicated 
sentences  are  possible.  In  this  theme  one  does  not  get 
the  sense  of  what  the  composer  is  trying  to  say  until  the 
melody  ends  ;  in  simple  themes,  made  up  by  repeating  the 
same  motive,  one  can  foresee  the  end  long  before  it  is 
reached.  Themes  like  this  beautiful  one  of  Mozart  are 
possible  only  after  art  has  become  well  developed,  and 
after  people  in  general  have  become  suflSciently  familiar 
with  the  phraseology  of  music  to  be  able  to  follow  compli- 
cated musical  sentences. 

A  further  charm  is  added  to  this  movement  by  the  free 
and  flowing  counterpoint  of  the  several  parts.  This  is 
an  essential  element  in  the  string  quartet,  since  without 
it,  there  being  little  variety  in  the  tone  of  the  four  instru- 
ments, monotony  would  result. 

VII.  Form  of  Mozart's  Andante. 

Here,  as  in  the  Haydn  slow  movement,  we  find  another 
example  of  sectional  form.  It  may  be  tabulated  as 
follows: 


160 


THE   APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  SECTIONS  IN  MOZART'S  ANDANTE. 


1. 


Modulating  from  tonic  to  dominant 
and  containing  theme  I,  episode  theme 
(13)  and  theme  II  (26),  1-44. 


II. 


Modulating  from  dominant  back  to 
tonic  with  the  same  succession  of  themes. 
Coda  (102),  54-114. 


The  sub-divisions  of  the  above  should  be  carefully 
noted  (as  indicated  by  the  entrance  of  the  different  themes). 
These  sub-divisions  break  the  piece  up  into  smaller  sections, 
each  distinct  from  the  others.  A  particularly  interesting 
and  beautiful  effect  is  produced  in  the  coda  (measures 
103-5)  by  the  augmentation  of  the  phrase  from  measures 
1-2,  which  is  reproduced  in  longer  notes  against  a  familiar 
counterpoint.^ 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

C.  H.  H.  Parry:  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music," 
Chapters  XI  and  XII.  W.  II.  Hadow:  ^^  Sonata  Form" 
Chapter  X.  D.  G.  Mason:  *'  Beethoven  and  PI  is  Fore- 
runners"    Chapters  V  and  VI. 

'  A  reference  to  the  full  score  of  this  movement  will  reveal  certain  crossings  of  the  lower 
instruments  over  the  upper  by  which  interesting  effects  of  tone  color  are  produced. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

BEETHOVEN— I. 

I.     General  Character  of  Beethoven's  Work. 

The  reader  who  has  attentively  followed  the  story  of 
the  long  and  gradual  development  of  music  from  the  folk- 
song and  peasant  dance  up  to  the  point  we  have  now 
reached,  cannot  but  have  been  impressed  by  the  character 
of  preparation  for  some  supreme  achievement  of  which 
this  development  seems  to  partake  throughout.  All  the 
laborious  steps  lead  on  toward  a  goal  which  even  in  the 
splendid  work  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  is  not  quite  reached. 
Haydn  crystallizes  the  form  and  style  of  instrumental 
music;  Mozart  adds  his  peculiar  aristocratic  grace  of  man- 
ner and  classical  beauty  of  substance,  yet  even  in  his  work 
there  remains  a  certain  coldness  and  conventionality  —  the 
body  of  the  art  is  perfect,  but  the  spiritual  passion  of  mod- 
ern music  as  we  know  it  is  still  lacking.  Even  during  the  life- 
times of  these  great  musicians,  however,  the  supreme  genius 
who  was  to  bring  to  its  perfect  flowering  the  plant  they  had 
so  carefully  tended  was  preparing  for  his  work.  In  1791, 
when  Mozart  died,  and  when  Haydn  made  his  first  jour- 
ney to  London  to  produce  his  Salomon  symphonies,  Ludwig 
van  Beethoven,  born  in  1770,  was  just  entering  on  his  young 
manhood. 

In  order  to  understand  the  character  and  work  of  Bee- 
thoven, it  is  necessary  constantly  to  bear  in  mind  the  two- 

181 


16^  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

sided  truth  that  the  greatest  men  are  those  who  combine 
the  utmost  receptivity  and  teachableness  with  a  perfect 
self-dependence  and  fearless  initiative.  Beethoven,  who 
is  equally  remarkable  for  both,  could  never  have  done  what 
he  did  had  he  lacked  either.  Had  he  been  merely  "origi- 
nal" he  could  not  have  securely  founded  himself  on  the 
work  of  his  predecessors,  and,  therefore,  would  probably 
not  have  surpassed  them.  Had  he  been  content  always  to 
imitate,  had  he  never  ventured  beyond  what  was  sanc- 
tioned by  tradition,  he  would  never  have  inaugurated  a 
new  epoch  in  music.  It  becomes,  therefore,  a  matter 
of  great  interest  to  trace  these  opposed  but  complementary 
traits  of  docility  and  unconventionality,  first  in  his  character, 
and  secondly  in  his  music. 

In  what  has  been  written  of  Beethoven,  his  eccentrici- 
ties have  been  so  dwelt  upon  that  his  capacity  for  laborious 
study  has  hardly  been  appreciated.  It  is  true  that  he  was 
a  restive  pupil.  He  was  taught  for  a  while  by  Haydn,  but 
soon  quarreled  with  him.  His  teacher  in  counterpoint,  the 
learned  pedagogue  Albrechtsberger,  said  of  him:  "He  will 
never  do  anything  according  to  rule;  he  has  learnt  nothing." 
But  Beethoven  was  essentially  self-taught;  and  in  his  efforts, 
under  his  own  guidance,  to  master  all  the  technical  diffi- 
culties of  his  art,  he  showed  the  most  inexhaustible  patience 
and  subjected  himself  to  the  most  tireless  labor.  Never 
did  the  veriest  dolt  drudge  more  faithfully  at  the  A,  B,  C 
of  his  art  than  the  "divine  Beethoven."  We  have  proof 
of  this  in  his  sketchbooks,  many  of  which  have  been  edited 
and  printed  by  Nottebohm.     In  them  we  see  him  jotting 


BEETHOVEN  ~I  168 

down  his  ideas,  often  surprisingly  trite  in  the  first  instance, 
and  then  returning,  day  after  day,  to  the  task  of  developing 
them  into  the  perfect  themes  of  his  finished  compositions. 
Nothing  could  be  more  salutary  to  those  who  fancy  that 
musical  creation  is  entirely  a  matter  of  "inspiration"  than 
a  perusal  of  these  endless  pages  in  which  Beethoven  slowly 
and  painfully  separates  the  pure  metal  from  the  ore  of  his 
thought  and  refines  it  to  complete  purity.* 

Beethoven's  wonderful  certainty  of  touch,  economy  of 
material,  and  logical  coherence  of  ideas  were  doubtless 
attainable  only  by  this  laborious  method  of  working.  He 
learned,  by  careful  imitation,  all  that  the  models  left  by 
his  predecessors  could  teach  him  before  he  ventured  to 
push  beyond  them.  Yet  even  in  his  early  'prentice  work, 
like  the  first  two  symphonies  and  the  earlier  piano  sonatas, 
in  which  the  influence  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  are  con- 
stantly evident,  there  is  a  vigor  of  execution,  a  ruggedness 
of  style,  and  a  depth  of  feeling,  that  are  all  his  own.  In 
other  words,  his  strong  originality  was  already  coloring  all 
that  he  did;  even  when  he  imitated,  it  was  with  a  subtle 
difference. 

Later,  as  his  powers  developed  and  self-confidence  grew, 
he  became  more  and  more  indifferent  to  tradition,  more  and 
more  singly  bent  on  following  his  own  genius  wherever  it 
might  lead  him.  A  strong  dramatic  instinct  began  to  pos- 
sess him,  showing  itself  in  a  love  for  sudden  changes  of  har- 
mony and  rhythm,  for  unexpected  transitions  from  loud  to 

■  See  for  quotations  from  the  sketchbooks.  Mason's  "Beethoven  and  His  Forerunners," 
pp.  304-3U.  Several  of  the  complete  sketchbooks,  edited  by  Nottebohm,  are  published 
by  Breitkopf  and  Hartel. 


164  THE   APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

soft  or  from  soft  to  loud,  and  in  other  such  eccentricities. 
His  rhythms  became  more  striking,  his  melodies  broader 
and  more  various,  his  harmonies  and  modulations  so  daring 
and  unprecedented  that  the  conservatives  of  the  day  held 
up  their  hands  in  horror.  His  sense  of  musical  structure, 
of  that  combining  of  themes  in  long  movements  which  is 
akin  to  the  architect's  combination  of  pillars,  arches,  win- 
dows, buttresses  and  colonnades  in  great  buildings,  became 
so  powerful  and  unerring  that  he  created  works  of  vaster 
proportions  and  more  subtle  symmetry  than  had  ever  been 
dreamed  of  before  —  so  great  and  complex  that  they  could 
be  followed  only  by  the  highly  trained  ear  and  mind. 

Such  were  the  works  of  his  maturity.  Later  still,  as  he 
became  more  and  more  thrown  in  upon  himself  by  poverty, 
pride,  the  terrible  affliction  of  deafness,  and  the  failure  of 
his  contemporaries  to  understand  him,  he  came  to  live 
entirely  in  his  own  ideal  world,  and  his  music  became  more 
and  more  markedly  individual,  and  in  some  cases  almost 
perversely  so.  His  latest  works  are  not  thoroughly  imder- 
stood,  even  to-day,  except  after  the  most  patient,  exhaustive 
study. 

The  customary  division  of  Beethoven's  artistic  life  into 
three  periods*  is  based  on  these  internal  differences  observ- 
able in  his  works.  Those  of  the  first  period,  extending  to 
about  1803,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  piano 
sonatas  up  to  opus  53,  the  first  three  piano  concertos,  the 
string  quartets,  opus  18,  and  the  first  and  second  sympho- 
nies, show  him  under  the  influence  of  Haydn  and  Mozart, 

*  See  Von  Lenz's  "  Beethoven  et  ses  trois  styles." 


BEETHOVEN —  I  165 

though  already  more  poignant,  impassioned,    and   forcible 
than  his  models. 

In  the  second  period,  the  period  of  full  and  vigorous 
maturity,  extending  from  1803  to  1813,  he  throws  off  all 
restricting  traditions,  and  stands  forth  a  heroic  figure,  the 
like  of  which  music  had  never  seen,  and  may  never  see 
again.  The  compositions  of  this  decade,  among  which  may 
be  specially  mentioned  the  piano  sonatas  from  the  "  Wald- 
stein"  to  opus  90,  the  fourth  and  fifth  piano  concertos,  the 
unique  concerto  for  violin,  the  string  quartets,  opus  59  and 
opus  74,  the  overtures  *'Coriolanus"  and  '*Egmont,"  the 
opera  "Fidelio,"  the  great  Mass  in  C,  and  above  all  the  six 
magnificent  symphonies  from  the  "Eroica"  to  the  eighth, 
are  among  the  supreme  achievements  of  human  art.  They 
combine  the  utmost  variety  of  form  and  style  with  a  perfect 
unity;  they  are  models  of  structure  for  all  time;  and  as  to 
expression,  one  knows  not  what  to  marvel  at  most,  their 
rugged  virility  and  intensity  of  passion,  their  deep  pathos 
and  tender  sentiment,  their  moods  of  effervescent  merri- 
ment, humor,  and  whimsical  perversity,  or  their  almost 
superhuman  moments  of  mystical  elevation. 

The  third  period,  extending  from  1813  to  Beethoven's 
death  in  1827,  is  as  we  have  said  characterized  by  an  almost 
excessive  individuality,  and  is  difficult  to  relate  to  the  normal 
progress  of  musical  art.  Nevertheless  it  contains  some  of 
his  greatest  works  —  notably  the  Ninth  Symphony,  the 
Mass  in  D,  and  the  final  sonatas  and  quartets.  The 
detailed  study  of  it  falls  outside  the  province  of  this  book. 

With  this  brief  and  necessarily  cursory  survey  of  Bee- 


166  THE   APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

thoven's  achievement  in  its  entirety,  we  may  pass  on  to  the 
examination  of  a  single  typical  work,  hoping  in  the  course 
of  it  to  make  clearer  to  the  student  the  two  main  facts  about 
Beethoven  on  which  we  have  been  trying  to  insist:  his 
indebtedness  to  his  predecessors  in  the  matters  of  general 
structure  and  style,  and  the  indomitable  originality  by  vir- 
tue of  which  all  that  he  does  is  infused  with  a  novel  beauty 
and  an  unparalleled  profundity  of  feeling.  We  shall  choose 
for  our  first  example  one  of  the  finest  compositions  of  his 
first  period  —  the  "  Pathetique  Sonata,"  for  piano,  opus  13, 
taking  up  in  later  chapters  some  typical  examples  of  his 
more  advanced  style. 

II.     Analysis  of  a  Beethoven  Sonata. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  17. 
Beethoven:   Piano  Sonata,  Opus  13.      First   movement. 

It  will  be  noted  that  Beethoven  adds  to  the  three  tradi- 
tional sections  of  the  sonata-form  an  introduction  in  slow 
tempo  (of  which  we  saw  an  earlier  example  in  Haydn's 
"Surprise"  Symphony)  and  a  brief  coda,  based  on  the  main 
material  of  the  movement,  to  round  out  the  complete  move- 
ment satisfactorily.  In  his  later  work  both  of  these  addi- 
tional sections  came  often  to  figure  very  prominently,  the 
increased  development  he  gave  to  them  being  indeed  one  of 
his  most  important  contributions  to  sonata-form.  We  shall 
see  in  his  Fifth  Symphony  a  fine  example  of  his  treat- 
ment of  the  coda,  which  raises  it  to  a  dignity  equal  to  that 
of    the   other   organic   sections.     The   introduction   of   the 


O 


BEETHOVEN 


167 


Fourth  Symphony  extends  to  thirty-eight  measures  of  slow 
tempo,  that  of  the  Seventh  Symphony  to  sixty-two  mea- 
sures, with  great  variety  of  treatment. 

The  general^ tructure  of  this  movement,  which  is  in  ex- 
tended sonata-form,  is  shown  in  the  following  tabular  view:- 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  STRUCTURE  OF  FIRST  MOVEMENT  OF  THE 
PATHETIQUE  SONATA. 


Sections. 

Themes. 

Measures. 

Slow  Introduction 

1-10 

Exposition  (A) 

First  theme,  C  minor 

11-27 

Transition,  based  on  first  theme       

27-50 

Duality  of 

Second  theme,  E-flat  minor 

51-88 

Harmony 

Codetta  or  Conclusion  section,  E-flat  major 

Consisting  of 

Conclusion-theme  I 

89-134 
89-112 

Conclusion-theme  II 

113-120 

Reminiscence  of  theme  I 

121-134 

Development  (B) 

Plurality  of 

Harmony 

Introduction-motive 

135-138 

Theme  I  and  Introduction-motive  treated      

139-196 

Becapitulation  (A) 

First  theme,  C  minor 

197-209 

New  transition 

209-222 

Unity  of 
Harmony 

Second  theme,  F  minor 

223-254 

Codetta,  C  minor 

255-296 

Coda 

Consisting  of 

297-312 
297-300 

First  theme,  reminiscence 

301^11 

The  motive  of  the  introduction,  shown  in  Figure  XL VII, 
is  a  deeply  expressive  bit  of  melody  which  at  once  estab- 
lishes the  mood  to  which  the  sonata  owes  its  name  of 
"Pathetic"     How  incisive    and   seizing  is    this  very   first 


168 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


measure!  What  a  different  world  it  takes  us  into — a 
romantic  world  of  personal  feeling  —  from  the  classic  realms 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart!  The  emotion  thus  suggested  at  the 
outlet  becomes  deeper,  too,  as  we  proceed,  first  with  the 
higher  utterance  of  the  same  motive  in  the  second  measure, 
and  then  with  the  fragments  of  it  in  the  third  and  fourth, 
urging  us  on  to  a  climax  on  the  high  A-flat.  Finally,  in  the 
fifth  and  succeeding  measures,  the  pulsating  rhythm  of  the 
accompaniment  adds  a  still  greater  agitation,  while  the 
melody  climbs  ever  higher  and  higher  until  it  reaches  the  F 
of  measure  9,  after  which  it  dies  away  in  preparation  for  the 
main  theme.  The  intensity  of  Beethoven's  expression,  by 
which  his  claim  to  the  title  of  "romantic"  is  most  surely 
indicated,  could  hardly  be  better  shown  than  by  this  brief 
introduction  of  ten  measures. 

FIGURE  XLVII. 
{a)  Motive  of  the  Introduction,  Pathetique  Sonata. 
Grave. 

:12: 


{d)  Treatment  of  this  motive  in  the  Development. 

Allegro  molto. 


t3L 


:E=: 


:!*: 


i^ 


#= 


r 


* 


:ttt 


etc 


laEjg 


:F=I=: 


i 


=^^F= 


BEETHOVEN  — I  169 

The  body  of  the  movement  begins  energetically,  yet 
sombrely,  with  the  first  theme,  in  minor  key  and  strongly 
pronounced  rhythm.  This  merges  quickly  in  the  transi- 
tion (27-50),  which  is  neither  a  bit  of  empty  passage- 
work  as  often  with  Haydn,  nor  a  new  melody /as  with 
Mozart,  but  contains  constant  references  to  the  main  theme 
(35-37,  39-41,  43-45).  The  second  theme  is  both  more 
lyrical  in  character  and  more  extended  than  the  first.  It  is 
not  in  the  traditional  key  of  the  relative  major  (see  Chapters 
II  and  III),  but  oscillates  between  E-flat  minor  and  D-flat, 
coming  into  E-flat  major  (the  relative  of  C-minor)  only  as 
it  closes  and  debouches  into  the  first  conclusion  theme  (89- 
112).  The  closing  section  or  codetta  is,  however,  almost 
entirely  in  E-flat,  and  is  moreover  fairly  long  and  important. 
It  consists  of  two  independent  themes  and  of  a  reminiscence 
of  the  first  theme  at  measures  121-135.  A  fine  instance  of 
melodic  germination  is  found  in  the  first  conclusion  theme, 
where  the  gradually  rising  melody  twice  builds  itself  up  into 
a  long  phrase  of  eight  measures  (93-100,  and  105-112)  with 
splendidly  sustained  eflFect.  The  great  variety  of  rhythm 
embodied  in  the  codetta  should  be  especially  noticed. 

The  development  begins  with  a  restatement  of  the  poig- 
nant introduction-motive,  so  managed  that  it  leads  into  the 


remote  key  of  E-minor.  Now  begins,  with  the  resumption 
of  the  allegro  tempo,  a  rather  short  but  most  interesting 
treatment  of  the  first  theme,  continued  with  an  ingenious 
variant  of  the  introduction-motive  (measures  142-143,  148- 
149:  see  Figure  XL VII  (6)),  followed  by  the  transference 
of  the  fragment  of  the  first  theme  to  the  bass,  where  it  is 


170  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

thrice  repeated,  amid  constant  modulation.  Then,  in  the 
measure  following  169,  comes  one  of  those  inimitably  hushed, 
mysterious  passages  so  peculiar  to  Beethoven,  through 
which,  like  fountains  from  a  sombre  pool,  rise  fragments  of 
the  first  theme.  Then,  with  a  rapidly  descending  passage, 
the  movement  plunges  into  its  recapitulation. 

This  section  the  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in  analy- 
zing for  himself,  not  failing  to  note  the  felicity  with  which  a 
new  transition,  from  first  to  second  themes  ^<209-222),  is 
made  to  germinate  from  the  last  two  measures  of  the  main 
theme.  The  coda,  very  brief,  contains  nothing  but  a  final 
announcement  of  fragments  of  the  introduction-mptiye  and 
a  single  sentence  of  the  first  themei. 

Example   for  Analysis,    No.    18. 
Beethoven:  Piano  Sonata,  opus  13.     Second  movement. 

This  slow  movement,  a  beautiful  adagio  cantabile  in 
Beethoven's  tranquilly  serious  mood,  takes  on  the  sectional 
form  of  the  rondo,  consisting  of  a  theme  (A),  an  episode 
(B),  recurrence  of  the  theme  {A),  a  second  episode  (C), 
second  recurrence  of  the  theme  (A),  and  brief  codetta. 

FIGURE  XLVIII. 


ssm$^^^mm0 


The  theme  itself,  filling  only  eight  measures,  but  repeated 
at  a  higher  pitch  in  the  second  eight  measures,  is  a  fine 
example  of  the  variety  in  unity  of  Beethoven's  melodies, 
secured  only  after  much  laborious  sketching.     It  is  shown  in 


BEETHOVEN  — I  171 

Figure  XLVIII,  and  should  be  examined  carefully.  Almost 
every  measure  of  it  presents  a  new  rhythm,  so  that  there  is 
none  of  the  monotony  of  those  themes  which  endlessly  repeat 
a  single  rhythmic  figure.  (Compare  the  tunes  of  primitive 
savages  shown  in  Chapter  I.)  Yet  the  whole  melody  is  so 
deftly  composed  that  its  final  impression  of  unity  is  perfect. 
The  sequence  form  which  the  harmonies  of  the  last  four  mea- 
sures take  contributes  in  no  small  degree  to  this  impression 
of  unity. 

The  theme  being  in  the  key  of  A-flat,  both  episodes  are 
planned  to  give  variety  of  key,  the  first  (B — measures  17-28) 
being  in  the  relative  minor,  F-minor,  and  the  second  (C — 
measures  37-50),  beginning  in  A-flat  minor  and  modulat- 
ing, through  E-raajor,  back  to  the  home-key. 

With  the  third  entrance  of  the  main  theme,  the  accom- 
paniment takes  the  more  animated  rhythm  of  triplets;  and 
these  continue  through  the  brief  but  delightful  codetta  (Q6- 
73). 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  19. 

Beethoven:    Piano  Sonata,  opus  13.     Third  movements 

This  movement  is  an  example  of  rondo  form,  being,  like 
the  Mozart  rondo  we  have  already  studied,  based  on  the 
alternation  of  a  chief  theme,  with  sections  containing  other 
material.  The  tabular  view  on  the  next  page  exhibits  the 
complete  structure. 

The  first  theme,  sprightly  and  energetic,  and  recall- 
ing in  its  melodic  curve  the  second  theme  of  the  first  move- 

*  In  numbering  the  measures,  begin  with  the  first  (partial)  measure,  even  though  it 
is  incomplete. 


172 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


ment,  is  in  strophic  form,  with  its  last  half  repeated,  and  the 
cadence  extended  for  greater  emphasis.  The  sequences  in 
measures  6-7  and  10-11  should  be  noted.  The  transition 
also  starts  off  with  a  sequence,  measures  23-26,  correspond- 
ing to  19-22.  Our  old  familiar,  the  device  of  imitation, 
also  figures  in  measures  38  and  39.  It  is  interesting  to  see 
Beethoven  using  these  tools  of  the  polyphonic  style  (see 
Chapters  I  and  III)  in  a  work  so  far  removed  from  it,  and 
with  such  ingratiating  freshness. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FINALE  OF  THE 
PATHETIQUE  SONATA. 


Sections. 

Themes. 

Measures 

A. 

First  theme,  C-minor , 

1-18 

Transition 

19-26 

B. 

Second  theme,  E-flat  major      

26-44 

Closing  theme  (Codetta) . 

44-52 

Transition  (on  motive  from  close  of  second  theme)     .    . 

52-62 

A. 

First  theme,  C-minor 

62-79 

C. 

Third  theme,  A-flat 

80-108 

Florid  passage  work 

108-121 

A. 

First  theme,  C-major 

121-135 

B 

Second  theme,  C-minor 

135-154 

Closing  theme  (codetta) 

155-171 

A, 

First  theme,  C-minor      

172-183 

Codetta,  extended 

Final  suggestions  of  first  theme        

183-203 
203-211 

The  second  theme  enters  for  only  eight  measures,  after 


BEETHOVEN— I 


178 


which  the  gay  little  imitations  are  again  resorted  to,  and 
carry  us  to  the  re-entrance  of  the  main  theme. 

The  episode  (C),  based  on  a  new  theme  in  the  key  of 
A-flat  major,  for  the  sake  of  the  harmonic  variety  so  essen- 
tial to  the  middle  part  of  a  movement,  is  again  in  seauence 
form,  and  in  strict  polyphonic  style,  first  with  two  voices 
and  later  with  three.  In  measures  100-103  we  have  the 
theme  in  the  right  hand,  and  set  against  it  in  the  left  a 
staccato  counterpoint  in  eighth-notes;  in  the  next  four  mea- 
sures this  scheme  is  just  reversed.  A  rather  florid  passage, 
which  may  be  compared  to  the  cadenza  in  the  rondo  from 
Mozart  analyzed  in  Chapter  VI,  leads  over  to  the  return  of 
the  first  theme. 

FIGURE  XLIX. 

:g=t|l2i^- 


L J  _A 


174  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

The  appearance  of  the  second  theme,  on  its  return,  in 
the  key  of  C-major  instead  of  E-flat  major,  imparts  organic 
solidity  to  the  movement  by  its  insistence  on  the  tonic  key, 
as  in  similar  cases  in  the  sonata-form  (compare  again  Chap- 
ter VI).  It  is  also  this  time  made  to  germinate  into  eight 
additional  measures  (see  Figure  XLIX). 

In  the  final  section  A  (172-end)  the  little  motive  of  the 
transitions  does  further  duty,  and  a  new  figure  is  introduced 
in  measure  194.  After  the  pause  of  measures  202-203,  we 
nave  brief  hints,  piano,  of  the  main  theme,  and  then  with 
one  of  the  sudden  fortissimos  Beethoven  loves  so  well,  a 
precipitous  downward  scale  ends  the  movement  with  vigor. 

III.     Summary. 

The  "  Pathetique  Sonata  "  illustrates  most  vividly  the 
general  truths  about  its  composer's  first  period  which  we 
have  tried  to  bring  out  above.  The  similarity  to  the  style 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart  is  most  striking.  Not  only  do  we  find 
the  general  types  of  structure  developed  by  them  applied 
with  great  fidelity,  but  there  are  many  details  of  style,  such 
as  the  accompaniment  figures  and  the  ornamentation,  which 
recall  them.  Yet  the  strings,  so  to  speak,  are  all  tightened, 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  flabbiness  or  diffuseness,  everything 
irrelevant  is  omitted,  and  the  style  is  at  once  more  varied 
and  more  unified  than  theirs.  The  vigor  and  individuality 
of  all  the  themes  is  consummate;  the  organic  beauty  of  such 
themes  as  that  of  the  Adagio  is  supreme.  The  transitions 
are  notable  for  their  pertinency  and  derivation  from  the 
thematic  materials  of  the  movement  —  there  are  no  empty 


BEETHOVEN  — I  176 

scales  and  arpeggios.  The  developments  give  the  impres- 
sion of  inevitabihty,  of  growing  from  the  primary  motives 
as  naturally  as  plants  grow  from  their  seeds.  Contrast  in 
rhythm,  in  melody,  in  harmony,  and  in  style  (as  exempli- 
fied in  the  use  of  polyphonic  style  in  the  finale)  abounds. 
There  is  never  a  dull  moment,  yet  interest  is  never  secured 
at  the  expense  of  unity.  Above  all,  the  virility,  profundity, 
and  earnestness  of  the  expression,  surprise  us;  there  is  here 
none  of  the  detachment,  the  cool  remoteness,  of  classic  art; 
every  note  throbs  with  personal  feeling  —  music  has  left 
the  innocence  and  transparent  gaiety  of  childhood  behind 
it,  and  begun  to  speak  with  the  deeper  and  more  moving, 
if  less  serene,  accents  of  maturity. 

In  the  next  chapters  we  shall  trace  this  progress  further. 

.  Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

E.  Dickinson:  **The  Study  of  the  History  of  Music,''  Chap- 
ter XXVI.  C.  H,  H  Parry:  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of 
Music,'*  Chapter  XII.  D.  G.  Mason:  *'  Beethoven  and  His 
Forerunners,"  Chapters  VII,  VIII,  and  IX, 


CHAPTER   XII. 

BEETHOVEN  — II. 

I.     Form  and  Content. 

Our  study  of  the  Pathetique  Sonata  has  shown  how 
closely  Beethoven  followed  the  models  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  at  the  same  time  infusing  into  them  a  new  spirit. 
The  first  movement  of  that  sonata  does  not  differ  mate- 
rially in  form  from  the  first  movement  of  Mozart's  G-minor 
Symphony,  discussed  in  Chapter  IX,  yet  Beethoven  takes 
us  into  a  new  world,  far  removed  from  that  world  of  pure 
impersonal  beauty  in  which  Mozart  dwelt.  Beethoven  is 
the  man  struggling,  fighting,  working  out  his  own  individ- 
uality, learning  through  bitter  experience;  Mozart  is  the 
artist  not  so  much  turning  his  own  experience  into  music, 
as  creating  outside  himself  imperishable  works  of  an  almost 
superhuman  beauty.  In  many  of  Beethoven's  works  there 
is  this  same  regularity  of  form  coupled  with  freedom  of 
expression.  The  brusqueness  of  his  style  led  his  contem- 
poraries to  think  him  an  iconoclast;  and  it  was  not  till  many 
years  after  works  like  the  fifth  symphony  were  produced 
that  the  public  began  to  understand  how  orthodox  they  are. 

This  free  individual  expression,  now  a  characteristic  of 
art  generally  and  evident  enough  in  all  phases  of  human 
life  —  this  assertion  of  the  personal  point  of  view  —  began 

176 


BEETHOVEN— II 


177 


with  Beethoven  and  has  been  increasing  ever  since  his  day, 
until  we  now  have  music  in  which  certain  phrases  or  themes 
no  longer  please  us  as  beautiful  sounds,  but  exist  for  some 
ulterior  and  individual  purpose. 


(a) 


FIGURE  L. 


Largo  appassionato. 


# 


4=iC 


t^ 


^ 


p  tenuto  sempre. 


Si 


q  r  q  p-  q  T  q  I    q  r  :?  f"  P  T  q  t  ^ 


\    ^  f  H    I    ^  I    H  r  H  7  -i  r  H  \ 


m 


-N ^ 


3r 


etc 


i 


f==f=Ff^fcpi=ii^ 


r=i*^«r 


/ 


Largo  e  meslo 


^^^i 


-<§K 


^ 


#; 


4H 


-a^i  X  1 


>  '^ 


rJ 


|-^rrr|;^ 


IK 


This  change  was  perhaps  only  a  part  of  that  more  gen- 
eral transformation  of  society  by  which  the  composer,  who 
had  previously  been  subject  to  the  favor  of  princely  patrons, 
became  an  independent  individual,  living  in  direct  contact 
with  the  public  at  large.     Music,  thus  freed  and  given  an 


178  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIO 

independent  existence,  became  an  expressive  art  and  took 
deeper  root  in  human  experience.  It  lost,  in  this  process, 
something  of  that  calm,  ethereal  beauty  it  had  possessed, 
but  it  gained  greatly  in  expressiveness.  In  Beethoven's 
hands  it  became  plastic ;  he  enlarged  the  range  of  harmonic 
combinations  far  beyond  that  of  Mozart,  and  created  themes 
that  were  of  wider  application  to  human  feeling.  In  illus- 
tration of  this  there  will  be  found  in  Figure  L,  (a)  a  quota- 
tion from  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  piano  sonata, 
op.  2,  no.  2,  and  in  (6)  a  quotation  from  the  slow  movement 
of  his  sonata,  op.  10,  no.  3.  These  should  be  compared  with 
the  theme  from  Mozart's  piano  sonata  in  Figure  XLI. 
The  difference  between  the  themes  of  Beethoven  and 
that  of  Mozart  is  in  their  content  rather  than  in  their  form. 
The  purpose  of  Mozart's  theme  is  beauty;  the  purpose 
of  Beethoven's  themes  is  expressiveness,  the  conveyance  of 
deep  emotion.  They  are  lacking  in  one  essential  quality 
of  melodic  beauty,  namely,  outline,  or  curve.^  These  two 
quotations  are  not  representative  of  Beethoven's  lyric 
genius,  for  he  has  left  us  many  fine  melodies,  but 
they  reveal  a  general  tendency  of  his  to  seek  in  music 
an  outlet  for  his  deepest  thoughts  and  feelings,  and  to  sacri- 
fice, if  necessary,  that  beauty  of  outline  that  characterises 
Mozart's  finest   tunes. 

II.  Beethoven's  Style. 
One  peculiarity  of   Beethoven's  music,  due  to  his  con- 
stant search  after  expressiveness  rather  than  mere  formal 

■An  examination  of  any  one  of  the  best  folk-songs  quotea  in  Chapter  II,  or  the  melodies 
af  Bach,  Handel,  Haydn  or  Mozart  quoted  in  succeeding  chapters,  will  show  how  impor- 
tant an  element  of  melody  is  this  curve  or  outline. 


BEETHOVEN  — II 


179 


symmetry,  is  a  unity  and  conciseness  of  style  notably 
superior  to  that  of  Mozart.  Many  of  his  themes  lack  the 
perfect  balance  of  phrases,  in  exact  thesis  and  antithesis, 
found  in  Mozart's,  their  structure  resulting  rather  from 
a  logical  development  of  the  leading  motive,  which,  by  a 
favorite  device  of  his,  presses  on,  in  constant  repetition 
and  with  increasing  vigor,  to  an  emotional  climax.  The 
contrast  between  this  method  of  treating  a  theme  and 
the  method  of  Mozart  may  be  seen  in  Figure  LI. 

FIGURE  LI. 

(a)    From  Mozart's  G-minor  SjTnphony. 


i 


-^ — ' '      ■      ■      ' '      ' 


r*: 


PE* 


icfe 


fif  rk 


e=4 


*; 


«-H^ 


I 


1    ^^~m 


{6)    From  Beethoven's  first  piano  Sonata 


^ 


^ll  "^^^ 


#gj 


^ 


^^f^ 


f-tJz 


^  ^* 


^^f^j^^^ 


^t 


(c)     From  Beethoven's  String  Quartet,  op.  59,  No.  1. 


^B: 


:i=P= 


^-^ 


i=P= 


^=F= 


y  f  ^ 


12: 


« — *- 


^S 


=i=P= 


^■=# 


=i=*: 


S^ 


^-^ 


■0^ 


ee 


-♦--   o.-*-* 


-i-^  ^.    J2-    -^    -^ 


% 


i 


ISO  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

In  the  quotation  from  Mozart's  symphony  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  two-measure  phrases  exactly  balance 
each  other,  but  that  the  second  phrase  is  melodically  unre- 
lated to  the  first,  and  is,  furthermore,  a  somewhat  trivial 
figure.  One  feels  in  listening  to  the  whole  theme  that 
the  real  significance  of  it  lies  in  the  opening  phrase,  and 
this  conclusion  is  justified  by  reference  to  the  develop- 
ment section  of  the  movement,  where  the  composer  alto- 
gether discards  the  second  phrase.  The  style  of  this  theme 
is,  therefore,  largely  dictated  by  the  convention  of  perfect 
phrase  balance.  The  style  of  the  two  Beethoven  themes, 
on  the  contrary,  is  vigorous  and  terse.  The  outward 
symmetry  is  dictated  by  the  inner  sense. 

In  the  sonata  theme  Beethoven  presses  home  his  idea 
with  greater  and  greater  intensity  until  the  climax  is  reached, 
after  which  the  tension  is  gradually  abated;  in  the  theme 
from  the  string  quartet  an  almost  identical  method  is 
pursued.  For  a  further  illustration  of  the  terseness  of 
Beethoven's  style  reference  may  be  made  to  the  develop- 
ment sections  of  this  sonata  and  string  quartet,  where 
most  interesting  use  is  made  of  the  short  motives  from 
which  these  themes  are  derived.  These  methods  of  writ- 
ing give  evidence  of  the  fine  economy  Beethoven  contin- 
ually displays.  There  is,  in  his  music,  nothing  redundant  — 
no  unnecessary  word  —  and  it  is  this  quality  of  style  that 
produces  such  an  effect  of  life  and  vigor. 

Beethoven  carries  out  these  methods  in  whole  move- 
ments, and  even  in  complete  symphonies.  We  have 
already  seen  how,  in  the  Pathetique  Sonata,  a   theme  in 


BEETHOVEN  — 11 


181 


the  finale  is  derived  from  one  in  the  first  movement,  but  a 
much  more  interesting  example  of  the  process  ^  may  be 
found  in  the  fifth  symphony. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  20. 

Beethoven:     The    Fifth    Symphony.^     First    movement. 

FIGURE  LII. 


^ 


Jiznt 


i 


:3it=M=Mi 


-4^ 


5^ 


^^-^ 


^4: 


^   !■«  i-  /I 


S* 


W^i 


J 


Ebu^iiat 


i-fci 


.JVJ.-J 


(^) 


^r 


fcnzdie: 


^^ 


4z^ 


^^ 


3?: 

Jf2_ 


£ 


^^ 


-i- 


Q: 


^-^^ 


^: 


r 


-"p^ 


N.B. 


(O 


-,5<2- 


-^Dtzfe 


^ 


-^-•- 


n>H-^^- 


?--j=f 


£^- 


^l=t=l: 


F=f^ 


? 


■t-#: 


^^ 


ia:S=i 


i^M 


F 


-J^- 


f— *- 


i 


'  The  themes  in  the  minuet  and  6nale  of  Haydn's  "  Emperor  "  quartet  have  a  slight 
similarity  of  contour. 

^  Published  for  piano,  two  or  four  hands,  by  Peters,  Leipzig,  For  convenience  of 
reference,  number  all  measures  and  parts  of  measures  consecutively. 


182 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIO 


(d)    From  the  Scherzo. 


In  Figure  LII  will  be  found  quotations  from  the  three 
themes  of  the  first  movement  of  the  Fifth  Symphony,  and 
from  the  secondary  theme  of  the  scherzo. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  motive  in  theme  I  — 
consisting  of  three  short  notes  followed  by  a  long  one  — 
is  the  germ  from  which  both  the  conclusion  theme  and 
scherzo  theme  spring,  and  that  the  same  motive  serves 
as  the  bass  to  the  second  theme.  This  motive,  in  fact, 
dominates  the  entire  first  movement,  the  extraordinary 
vitality  of  w^hich  is  largely  due  to  the  incisive  quality  of 
the  motive  itself  and  to  the  occasional  thunderous  procla- 
mations of  it  by  the  entire  orchestra.  Here  we  have  the 
virility  of  Beethoven's  style  admirably  illustrated;  no  time 
is  given  to  platitudes,  no  single  measure  wanders  away  from 
the  chief  issues.  At  times  this  first  motive  is  extended  into 
a  succession  of  loud  chords  from  the  full  orchestra;  again 
the  prevailing  two-measure  rhythm  is  interrupted  by  a 
measure  of  silence  that  shifts  the  accents  dramatically  from 
one  place  to  another,  dislocating  the  whole  passage.'  This 
intensity  of  utterance  —  each  phrase  hammered  home  — 
gives  to  the  whole  work  a  quite  unique  place  among 
symphonies. 

'  The  presence  of  measure  389  —  which  Is  silent  —  has  been  a  subject  of  discussion 
among  musicians*  '*  is  sometimes  omitted  in  performance. 


BEETHOVEN  —  II  183 

The  complete  movement  may  be  tabulated  as  follows: 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  STRUCTURE  OF  FIRST  MOVEMENT  OF 
BEETHOVEN'S  FIFTH  SYMPHONY. 


Sections. 

Themes. 

Measures. 

Introduction. 

On  motive  from  theme  I , 

1-5 

Exposition  (A) 

Duality  of 
Harmony 

First  theme,  C-minor      

6-56 

Transition  consisting  of  a  chord  of  modulation  _  .    ,.  .    .    . 
Introduction  to  theirs  II  based  on  original  motive  .    .    . 
Second  theme  in  E-flat  major                  

58 
59-62 
63-95 

Codetta  or  Conclusion-section  consisting  of 

Conclusion-theme 

Reminiscence  of  theme  I 

95-110 
110-124 

Development  (B) 

Plurality  of 
Harmony 

Mntivp  frnm  thpmp  T  tr^'^it'^               

125-179 

Introduction  to  theme  II  lengthened  and  treated  in  se- 
quence (G-minor  and  C-minor) 

Half  note  phrase  pass  the  same  extended  into  long  pas- 
sage finally  losing  its  contour  and  retaining  only  its 
rhythm                     

179-195 
195-240 

Recapitulation  (A) 

240-252 

253-300 

302 

Unity  of 
Harmony 

Introduction  to  theme  II       

303-3C6 

Second  theme  in  C-major 

307-346 
346-374 

Coda 

374-397 

Introduction  to  theme  II  with  new  counterpoint 

Motive  from  the  same  in  diminution  (basses) 

398-406 
406-415 
416-469 

469-502 

The  foregoing  table  should  be  compared  with  those  in 
Chapters    VIII    and  IX   in  order  to   get  a    comprehensive 
view    of     the    gradual    development    of    sonata-form.      It » 
will  be  seen    that   Beethoven    destroys    nothing,    but    that  \ 


184  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

the  changes  he  makes  in  the  older  models  are  changes  such 
as  the  nature  of  his  themes  and  the  length  of  the  movement 
demand.  The  chief  difference  in  themes  is  that  the  first 
theme  is  less  lyric  than  those  of  Mozart,  and  more  suited 
to  development;  a  better  contrast  between  themes  I  and  II 
is  thereby  provided.  The  coda  is  extended  far  beyond  that 
of  the  old  model,  and  becomes  an  important  part  of  the 
structure  —  important,  because  at  this  stage  of  the  develop- 
ment of  sonata  form  (audiences  having  become  accustomed 
to  listening  to  long  pieces  of  pure  music)  the  repetition  of 
the  whole  first  section  (A)  is  a  little  too  obvious,  and  the 
introduction  of  a  dramatic  coda  after  the  recapitulation 
section  provides  fresh  interest  at  the  point  where  it  is  most 
needed. 

Sir  Hubert  Parry  ^  writes  of  Beethoven's  innovations  in 
this  phase  of  musical  development  as  follows:  "It  was  his 
good  fortune  that  the  sonata-form  had  been  so  perfectly 
organized  and  that  the  musical  public  had  been  made  so 
perfectly  familiar  with  it,  that  they  were  ready  to  follow 
every  suggestion  and  indication  of  the  principle  of  form; 
and  even  to  grasp  what  he  aimed  at  when  he  purposely 
presumed  on  their  familiarity  with  it  to  build  fresh  sub- 
tleties and  new  devices  upon  the  well  known  lines;  and  even 
to  emphasize  the  points  by  making  progressions  in  direc- 
tions which  seemed  to  ignore  them." 

But  most  important  of  all  is  the  close  reasoning  (if  we 
may  use  the  term)  displayed  throughout  this  movement. 
There  is  hardly  a  single  note  in  it  that  has  not  some  direct 

'  "  Evolution  oi  the  .Vrt  of  Music,"  Chapter  XII. 


BEETHOVEN  — II 


185 


bearing  on  the  subject  matter,  the  two  chords  in  the  transi- 
tions being  the  only  portions  not  derived  from  the  themes 
proper.^  With  all  these  elements  of  strength,  and  the  added 
cohesion  resulting  from  the  similarity  of  themes,  this  move- 
ment stands  as  a  model  of  what  a  symphonic  first  move- 
ment should  be. 


III.     The  Dramatic  Element  in  Beethoven's  Music. 

We  have  referred  in  Chapter  VIII  to  that  process  of 
development  whereby  a  theme  becomes  gradually  changed, 
losing  its  physiognomy  little  by  little  until  it  is  only  a  shadow 
of  its  former  self.   In  the  quotation  in  Figure  LIII  this  process 

FIGURE  Llll. 

(a) 

Allegro  con  brio. 


§^5f= 


i 


ff 


^f 


sf 


{b) 


-fSZ- 


2_r     b     |ii=jc 


f4 


T 


^^ 


^a 


^ 


\ 


etc. 


i5S|3 


^ 


f 


~3: 


Sff^ 


^ff- 


:S? 


=+t 


-te- 


1 


i£ 


m 


4: 


iSi=fe 


'& 


n 
-«*- 


semfire 


piu 


^4 


-'¥- 


pt 


r* 


Ei 

F 


A 


186  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

might  almost  be  said  to  be  the  opposite  of  development,  since 
the  theme  is  gradually  denuded  of  its  melodic  curve,  until 
nothing  but  its  rhythm  remains;  but  the  effect,  at  least,  is 
to  produce  something  quite  new  out  of  a  germinal  motive, 
and  to  relieve,  for  a  moment,  that  insistence  on  melody 
that  characterizes  the  first  section.  The  device  is  a  favorite 
one  with  Beethoven,  and  in  this  movement  he  makes 
interesting  use  of  it.  The  passage  begins  at  measure 
195  ((a)  in  the  figure)  with  the  phrase  used  to  introduce  the 
second  theme,  as  if  it  intended  going  on  with  the  theme  as 
before,  but  instead  there  enters  a  long  passage  of  half -notes, 
(6),  in  which  the  outline  of  the  half-note  phrase  is  preserved 
for  a  while,  after  which  the  rhythm  only  is  retained,  and  the 
passage  becomes  a  series  of  chords  floating  mysteriously, 
and  dimly  outlined  as  in  a  cloud  ((c)  in  the  figure).  The 
original  motive  crashes  through  (measure  228)  for  a 
moment,  the  soft  chords  sound  again,  and  then  the  whole 
orchestra  rushes  rapidly  to  the  end  of  the  section. 

The  effect  of  this  cessation  of  the  rapid  movement 
that  has  thus  far  animated  the  music  is  very  dramatic, 
and  the  startling  interruption  of  its  peaceful  flow  by  the 
loud  chords  at  measures  228-231  —  as  if  they  were  impatient 
to  begin  the  turmoil  again  —  gives  the  whole  passage  a 
peculiarly  vivid  effect.  This  device  is  analogous  to  that 
employed  in  the  novel  when  the  author  prepares  his  readers, 
by  a  page  or  two  of  peaceful  narrative,  for  his  most  dra- 
matic episode.  The  significance  of  this  passage  is,  of 
course,  due  to  its  connection  with  the  introductory  phrase 
from   which  it  sprang,    but  it  should    be    noted  that    the 


BEETHOVEN  — 11  187 

whole  passage  is  a  re-creation  from  the  original  motive  and 
not  a  restatement  of  it  in  another  key.  And  its  position 
in  the  movement  is  exactly  at  the  point  where  some  relief 
is  needed  from  what  might  otherwise  be  a  too  great  in- 
sistence on  the  first  theme,  and  just  before  the  beginning 
of  the  recapitulation,  where  the  first  theme  is  to  appear  in 
its  original  form.  It  will  be  found  that  such  passages  are 
usually  placed  in  this  position. 

The  themes  in  Beethoven's  finest  works  are  not  only 
hammered  out,  as  it  were,  from  the  rough  metal,  but  we 
may  say  of  them  —  as  we  cannot  say  of  those  of  Haydn's 
and  Mozart's  —  that  they  are  pregnant  with  possibilities 
which  are  not  fully  realized  until  the  composition  is  finished. 
With  Haydn  and  Mozart  the  development  section  is  usually 
a  string  of  different  versions  of  the  original  theme  —  as 
is  the  latter' s  G-minor  symphony,  first  and  last  move- 
ments. With  Beethoven  the  development  section  reveals 
what  was  latent  in  the  original  theme,  but  what  had  not 
been  before  realized.  In  the  development  section  of  the 
fifth  symphony  he  not  only  convinces  us  by  his  logic,  but 
overpowers  us  by  the  sweep  of  his  eloquence. 

IV.  The  Significance  of  the  First  Movement  of 
THE  Fifth  Symphony. 

It  is  impossible  to  express  in  words  the  significance 
of  this  music,  but  it  runs  almost  the  complete  gamut  of 
human  feeling.  The  opening  theme  is  so  incisive  and 
has  such  a  tremendous  energy  that  it  takes  us  into  a  new 


188 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


world.  If  we  compare  it  with  Mozart's  first  movement 
themes  we  realize  at  once  that  it  deals  with  things  that 
music  had  never  attempted  to  express  before.  The  second 
theme  is  not  by  any  means  a  fine  melody,  being  made  up 
of  a  constantly  reiterated  phrase,  but  it  has  an  appealing 
beauty  of  its  own  that  we  would  not  exchange  for  perfec- 
tion. Occasionally  the  terrible  asserts  itself,  as  in  those 
ominous  chords  with  empty  fifths  in  the  coda  (measures 
481-482),  while  the  whole  movement  seems  to  have  been 
struck  off  at  white  heat. 

That  this  was  not  the  case,  however,  but  that  on  the 
contrary  even  the  first  theme  itself  took  its  present  shape 
only  after  a  laborious  effort  of  the  composer's  mind,  we 
know  from  the  evidence  of  his  sketchbook.  The  theme 
first  appears  there  in  the  following  form. 


FIGURE  LIV. 


^ 


S#=^=^=^ 


stS 


-^  r  m  m  0r 


m^ 


^=^ft±^ 


^|ii£ 


^iM=^ 


^S. 


-^T^ 


This   commonplace   theme    evidently  lay  generating  in 
Beethoven's  mind  for  a  long  period.     Various  sketches  on 


BEETHOVEN— II  189 

it  appear  from  time  to  time,  and  it  was  only  after  much 
thought  that  it  finally  emerged  in  its  permanent  form. 
This  was  always  his  method  of  composition.  Unlike 
Mozart,  who  wrote  music  with  the  utmost  fluency  and 
rapidity,  Beethoven  rewrote  his  themes  many  times  before 
they  satisfied  him,  and  the  process  caused  him  actual  men- 
tal agony.  With  him  composing  was  a  struggle,  a  fight; 
he  stamped,  and  sang,  and  shouted  over  the  composition 
of  some  of  his  larger  works,  and  finally  emerged  from  his 
solitude  exhausted. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  Beethoven  was  affected  by 
the  prevailing  social  unrest  of  his  time  —  by  the  revolu- 
tionary ideas  that  were  then  stirring.  Although  we  cannot 
attempt  to  translate  into  words  the  significance  of  the  fifth 
symphony,  there  is  no  mistaking  its  language  as  that  of 
independence  and  freedom  from  conventional  shackles. 
*' Writing  in  a  period  of  revolution,"  says  Mr.  Hadow,* 
*' himself  an  ardent  revolutionary,  he  broke  in  upon  the 
politeness  of  the  Austrian  court  with  an  eloquence  as  tem- 
pestuous as  that  of  Mirabeau  or  Danton."  So  that,  look- 
ing at  his  music  as  a  whole,  we  are  not  only  struck  by  its 
significance,  but  bv  the  close  relation  in  which  it  stands  to 
the  life  of  Beethoven's  period.  Never  before  had  music 
been  so  untrammeled,  so  free.  The  medium  itself  —  har- 
mony, melody,  rhythm  —  had  become  more  plastic,  and 
the  old  incubus  of  tradition  had  been  thrown  off.  Not 
only  that,  but  the  various  elements  in  composition 
were  fused  for  the  first  time  in  Beethoven's  music,     Poly- 

1  "  Oxford  History  of  Music." 


190  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

phony  takes  its  place  as  a  means  and  not  an  end;  pure 
melody  —  even  folk-melody  —  becomes  a  part  of  the  larger 
scheme  in  which  its  beauty  is  set  off  against  contrasting 
elements  —  and  is  thereby  enhanced;  rhythm  becomes  a 
means  of  expression  in  itself,  and  not  merely  a  vehicle;  har- 
mony is  made  an  important  part  of  the  general  design,  and 
its  latent  possibilities  as  a  means  of  expression  are  realized 
All  these  threads  were  gathered  together  by  Beethoven, 
and  woven  into  the  complex  fabric  of  his  music.  Great 
men  are  usually  born  at  just  the  right  moment,  and  Bee- 
thoven was  no  exception  to  the  rule;  for  he  found  the  art  a«: 
just  the  point  where  a  master  spirit  was  needed  to  take  its 
various  elements  and  fuse  them.  Under  his  hands  all  the 
inessential  parts  dropped  away,  and  the  essentials  were 
placed  in  such  relation  to  each  other  that  a  completely 
organic  work  of  art  resulted. 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

"  Oxford  History  "  Vol.  Ill:  Chapters  X  and  XI.  Grove* s 
*^  Beethoven  and  His  Nine  Symphonies.**  Grove* s  **  Dic- 
tionary of  Music  and  Musicians:**  articles  ^^ Beethoven** 
** Symphony,*'  and  ^* Form.**  Mason's  '^Beethoven  and  His 
Forerunners,**    Chapters  VII,  VIII,  and  IX. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

BEETHOVEN— III 

I.    The  Slow  Movement  Before  Beethoven. 

The  slow  movements  of  the  sonatas  and  symphonies 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart  were  essentially  lyric  pieces  in  which 
the  composer  relied  for  his  effect  on  the  beauty  of  his 
melodies.  These  melodies,  usually  two  in  number,  were 
varied  by  being  presented  in  different  keys  and  by  being 
ornamented  with  passing-notes,  scale  passages,  trills,  etc. 
Each  section  was  clearly  separated  from  the  others  by 
cadence  chords,  so  that  the  total  effect  was  of  a  series  of 
separate  divisions,  each,  as  it  were,  independent  and  com- 
plete in  itself.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  to  this 
method  of  procedure,  particularly  in  the  string  quartets 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  which  are  more  highly  developed 
than  is  usual  in  their  piano  sonatas,  but  as  a  general  rule 
this  was  their  way  of  treating  slow  movements. 

This   lyric,    sectional   form   of   slow   movement   served 

as    a   foil     to    the   more   involved   first    movement.     The 

lovely,    serene    melodies    were    not    disturbed    by   passion, 

nor  sacrificed  for  picturesque  effect  of  any  kind.     In  the 

string  quartets  and  symphonies  they  were  enlivened  by  a 

certain  amount  of  polyphony  (see  Chapter  X),  and  in  the 

piano  sonatas  they  occasionally  departed  from  the  simple 

191 


192 


THE   APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


regular  form,  but  they  seldom  dealt  with  tragedy  and 
seldom  presented  any  evidence  of  that  idiosyncrasy  and 
intense  individuality  that  marks  the  slow  movement  of 
later  times. 

II.  The  Slow  Movements  of  Beethoven's  Early 
Symphonies. 

The  early  sonatas  and  symphonies  of  Beethoven  are 
largely  constructed  on  the  old  model.  The  first  piano 
sonata,  referred  to  in  Chapter  XII,  has  a  sectional  slow 
movement  that  might  almost  have  been  written  by  Mozart. 
The  slow  movement  of  the  first  symphony  is  simplicity 
itself,  both  in  form  and  content;  and  even  the  adagio  of 
the  Pathetique  Sonata  (see  Chapter  XI)  is  a  straightfor- 
ward sectional  piece  with  a  lyric  melody  presented  several 
times,  with  varying  accompaniment,  and  with  the  usual 
contrasting  middle  section. 

FIGURE  LV. 

(a) 
Andante  cantabtle  con  moto.  ^^immm^mm^^,  ^^^ 


a 


^ 


Si 


::^ 


^ 


4  4  4 


^=?^=J= 


^^ 


at* 


i±*: 


BEETHOVEN  — III 


193 


\^' 


pp  cres. 


St 


ES 


P 


^^S=8 


•^kJ-i 


•-  "Tf^-^-^ 


— ^ 5^ 

-1^ 


:|i=J=^: 


•^ 


■^--^s^ 


Hd^ 


a--' 


(^) 


:#-:f 


ii^^ 


ati  .,    f  ^ 


^^- 


!^ 


fe 


•i> — s»- 


i^ 


;B= 


A — *-*-^-^ 


-¥ 


s 


*— * 


-kJl 


■^ ^ 


^a 


t 


f 


«=i=»=^ 


3?^=g=g=ff=p: 


te 


8i^=^ffl^: 


** 


il*-* 


irr^hiir 


(")., 


r=§: 


aE£ 


pi: 


ffi 


3^ 


Tim 


p 


izMzzMuMzjL 


^^ 


133 


5:5: 


ss 


-P--|—       -^-  -•-•  ^+^ 


-f--S=£:f:t 


::^-^ 


IzzMiOz  =i=ii— Jc^ 


etc. 


^rr 


194 


THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 


In  Figure  LV  is  shown  the  first  theme  of  the 
andante  of  the  first  symphony,  (a)  themes  from  the  lar- 
ghetto  of  the  second  symphony,  (b)  and  (e)  and  portions 
of  the  middle  section  of  the  same  (c),  (d),  (/),  and  (g). 
Each  of  these  themes  is  distinctly  strophic;  each  has 
perfect  phrase  balance,  charm  of  contour  or  outline,  and 
simplicity  of  harmonization.  Not  so  highly  organized  as 
the  theme  from  the  Pathetique  Sonata  (see  Chapter  XI, 
Figure  XLVII)  they  resemble  the  themes  of  the  older 
masters,  but  bear,  nevertheless,  some  evidence  of  the  in- 
dividuality that  so  fully  characterizes  Beethoven's  later 
music.  But  in  the  treatment  of  the  theme  from  the 
second  symphony  that  individuality  is  clearly  manifested. 
Instead  of  a  mere  restatement  varied  by  new  harmoniza- 
tion or  by  elaboration  of  the  theme  itself,  there  is  a  free 


BEETHOVEN  — III  195 

play  of  fancy,  one  or  two  short  motives  from  the  first  theme 
being  tossed  about  in  the  orchestra  from  one  instrument  to 
another  in  delightful  by-play. 

All  sorts  of  devices  are  resorted  to  to  keep  the  interest 
of  the  listener  at  its  height.  The  chief  motive  (Figure  LV, 
(b)  )  passes  from  calm  serenity  to  playfulness,  and  again  to 
splendid  sonorous  grandeur;  a  phrase  from  this  same 
motive  becomes  the  subject  of  an  almost  crabbed  dis- 
cussion (Figure  LV,  (d) ),  while  the  charming  secondary 
theme  TFigure  LV,  (e) ),  whose  whimsical  gayety  animates 
the  early  part  of  the  movement,  is  given  a  plaintive 
quality  by  a  change  to  minor  (Figure  LV,  (/) )  and  the 
touching  contrapuntal  phrases  that  are  set  against  it.  A 
little  later  a  single  phrase  from  the  same  theme  becomes 
the  subject  of  a  bit  of  vigorous  by-play  between  the  differ- 
ent instruments  (Figure  LV,  (g)). 

Thus  the  slow  movement,  even  in  Beethoven's  early 
works,  becomes  vivified  by  his  intense  individuality.  In 
his  more  mature  compositions  in  this  form  the  whole  body 
of  the  music  pulsates  with  life  —  no  single  part  stagnates. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  21. 

Beethoven  :     The  Fifth  Symphony,  Slow  movement. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  in  Chapter  X  that  the  slow 
movement  is  usually  written  in  some  sectional  form.  Bee- 
thoven followed  the  old  models  in  this  respect  in  the  majority 
of  his  slow  movements,  but  his  enrichment  of  the  content  of 
the  music  and  his  skill  in  avoiding  conventional  endings 


196  THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

and  other  platitudes  makes  his  pieces  less  rigid  in  effect 
than  those  of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  He  was  particularly 
fond  of  leaving  his  listeners  until  the  last  moment  in  doubt 
of  the  ultimate  conclusion  of  a  passage,  leading  them  away 
from  his  point  and  coming  back  to  it  by  an  unexpected 
modulation  or  turn  of  phrase;  he  frequently  ends  the  sec- 
tion of  a  movement  with  one  or  two  brusque  chords  sud- 
denly inserted  after  a  passage  full  of  sentiment.  In  short, 
his  sectional  movements  are  less  obvious  in  design,  and 
more  flowing  and  continuous,  than  was  the  custom  before 
his  day. 

The  andante  of  the  Fifth  Symphony  is  in  free  variation 
form,  the  divisions  —  unlike  those  in  the  variations  referred 
to  in  Chapter  VII  —  not  being  clearly  marked  nor  regular  in 
form.  The  theme  has  two  parts,  but  Beethoven  skill- 
fully avoids  that  prolixity  sometimes  evident  in  Haydn's 
"Andante  with  Variations;"  nor  does  he  lengthen  his  two 
themes  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  them  a  little  doubtful 
as  proper  subjects  for  variation  treatment,  as  did  Haydn. 
Furthermore,  although  the  second  part  of  Beethoven's  theme 
is  a  better  subject  han  Haydn's  "Trio"  theme,  being  more 
terse  and  more  characteristic,  Beethoven  presents  it  in 
nearly  its  original  form  each  time  it  appears,  making  the 
first  and  more  important  subject  serve  as  the  basis  of  his 
variations.  Such  changes  as  do  occur  in  the  second  theme 
will  be  noted  later.  The  complete  movement  may  be 
tabulated  as  follows: 


BEETHOVEN  — III 


197 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  ANDANTE  OF   THE  FIFTH 

SYMPHONY.! 


Sections. 

Themes. 

Measures. 

1. 

Theme  I  in  A-flat  major 

Theme  H  in  A-flat  and   C-major 

1-23 
23-50 

2. 

First   variation   of  theme  I,  A-flat  major      

Second   part  of  theme  I  as  before  but  with  more  elaborate 
accompaniment 

50-72 
72-99 

8. 

Second  variation  of  theme  I,  A-flat   major  (theme  given 

out  three  times:  cellos,  violins  and  basses) 

Episode,  founded  on  initial  motive  from  theme  I    .    .    .    . 
Theme  II  in  C-major  (first  two  phrases  lengthened)    .    .  . 

Episode,  founded  on  motive  from  theme  I 

Theme  I  in  A-flat  minor 

99-124 
124-148 
148-158 
158-167 
167-177 

Transition  passage  leading  to  return  of  theme  I     .    .    . 

177-186 

4. 

Theme  I,  A-flat  major       

186-206 

5. 

Coda 

206-248 

The  foregoing  table  may  be  compared  with  that  of 
the  Haydn  variations  in  Chapter  VII.  While  the  general 
scheme  is  the  same  —  for  the  two  themes  are  in  each  case 
presented  several  times  —  the  Beethoven  variations  are 
much  more  concise,  and  at  the  same  time  much  more  fully 
expressive  and  illustrative  of  the  original  theme.  Haydn's 
variations  are  naive;  Beethoven's  are  conscious.  Beethoven 
presents  his  themes  from  widely  different  points  of  view; 
Haydn  presents  charmingly  elaborate  versions  of  the  same 
melodies.     "Composers    did    not    for    a    long  while,"  says 

*  Number  the  measures  and  parts  of  measures  consecutively  from  beginning  to  end 
—  making  248  measures  in  all. 


198 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


Parry,^  "find  out  the  device  of  making  the  same  tune 
or  *  theme'  appear  in  different  lights,  so  as  to  make  studies 
of  different  aspects  of  the  same  story  under  changing  con- 
ditions, as  in  Robert  Browning's  Ring  and  the  Book" 

These  entirely  distinct  presentations  of  the  original 
idea  give  to  this  movement  an  especial  charm,  placing  it 
far  above  any  of  Haydn's  or  Mozart's  variations. 

III.    Individuality  of   the   Andante   of   the   Fifth 

Symphony. 

The  peculiar  charm  of  this  andante  lies  not  so  much  in 
its  melodies,  beautiful  as  they  are,  as  in  the  individuality 
of  their  treatment.  The  first  version  of  the  theme  as  it 
appears  in  Beethoven's  sketch-book  is  shown  in  Figure 
LVI  (a),  and  at  (6)  is  given  the  first  part  of  the  completed 
theme. 

FIGURE  LVI. 

Andante  quasi  Minuetto. 


{a) 


■j:i,^xijr=^j_j_j:i,jTiT^ 


P^?c 


^-t:;^ 


Andante  con  tnoto. 


m 


#iit«=^ 


Cs- 


^M 


W 


I      I      J      I      ^     1 


=e=8=^ 


j-i — • ^# — # 


>  -  Oxford  History,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  85. 


BEETHOVEN  —III  199 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  original  idea  was  somewhat 
mechanical  in  its  rhythm,  and  lacked  that  variety  imparted 
to  the  completed  theme  by  the  tied  note  at  the  beginning 
of  measure  3  and  at  the  middle  of  measure  5.  Beethoven's 
original  intention  must  have  been  quite  at  variance  in  other 
ways  with  what  he  finally  evolved,  for  he  marks  his  first 
sketch,  "Andante  quasi  Minuetto,"  i.e.  "in  the  style  of  the 
minuet,"  and  of  this  there  is  left  no  evidence  whatever. 

Each  variation  of  this  theme  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
original,  particularly  in  its  mood.  While  the  original 
theme  has  a  calm  and  even  pensive  beauty,  full  of  senti- 
ment, the  two  variations  of  it  are  less  serious  and,  at  times, 
verge  on  the  humorous  and  playful  (as  at  measure  108), 
or  on  the  grotesque  (as  at  measure  115).  But  in  the  epi- 
sodes that  occur  between  the  variations  —  in  the  transitions 
or  links  between  the  different  parts  —  Beethoven's  fancy 
has  fullest  play.  He  ranges  all  the  way  from  comedy  to 
tragedy,  from  delicate  gaiety  to  lumbering,  Brobdingnagian 
heaviness.  Simple  raillery  seizes  him  when,  at  measure 
160,  he  allows  the  violin  to  take  up  the  familiar  motive 
and  toss  it  to  the  basses  and  take  it  back  again,  or  when  he 
amuses  himself  with  weaving  thirds  up  and  down  (134), 
crossing  and  recrossing,  spinning  out  the  little  three-note 
motive  into  a  fine  web,  which  is  finally  torn  apart  as  the 
whole  orchestra  thunders  out  the  secondary  theme  (148). 

These  two  passages  (portions  of  \/hich  are  shown  in 
Figure  LVII)  in  their  freedom  from  restraint  and  their 
expression  of  the  composer's  idiosyncrasies,  are  quite  be- 
yond   what    had  ever    been  attempted    before.     We    see 


200 


THE   APPRECIATION    OF    MUSIC 


working    here   a    mind    full    of    resource    and    capable    of 
sounding  the  greatest  depths  of  the  subject. 

And  this  highly  imaginative  method  of  treating  the 
transitions  or  connecting  passages  is  one  of  the  funda- 
mental differences  between  the  variations  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart  and  those  of  Beethoven  "yl  priori,"^  says  Mr.  Hadow, 
"  it  would  be  easy  to  conjecture  that  the  variation  form  is 


FIGURE  LVII. 


te 


Andante  con  tnoto. 


& 


3=^3= 


SSai 


^^ 


m&i 


^ — st- 


■^ — ^ 


i^ 


S 


P  dolce. 


-s] ^ 


^sz- 


^ 


^=f 


-g— I— •= 


J=*h± 


>=>^8Ei; 


unsatisfactory.  It  affords  little  scope  for  structural  organ- 
ization, little  for  episode  or  adventure,  it  seems  to  have 
no  higher  aim  than  that  of  telling  the  same  story  in  the 

'  "  Oxford  History  of  Music,"  Vol.  V,  p.  272. 


BEETHOVEN— III  201 

largest  possible  number  of  different  words.  Indeed,  com- 
posers before  Beethoven  are  often  in  evident  straits  to 
maintain  its  interest."  An  examination  of  any  set  of 
variations  by  an  inferior  composer  will  reveal  just  the 
defects  Mr.  Hadow  refers  to.  But  Beethoven  not  only 
tells  the  story  in  quite  different  words,  but  finds  oppor- 
tunity for  all  sorts  of  interesting  episodes  and  adventures, 
so  that  the  structural  weakness  of  the  form  is  quite  lost 
sight  of.  With  him  the  connecting  passages  skillfully 
avoid  too  great  stress  on  pure  melody  —  with  which  the 
listeners  would  otherwise  be  surfeited  —  and,  at  the  same 
time,  they  never  degenerate  into  unmeaning  passages  of 
empty  chords  and  scales  such  as  often  occurred  in  the 
music  of  Haydn  and  Mozart. 

IV.  The  Harmonic  Plan. 

The  recurrence  in  the  same  key  of  the  theme  in  the 
variation  form  gives  to  it  a  certain  monotony  of  harmoniza- 
tion unless  the  episodes  are  treated  with  great  harmonic 
freedom.  As  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  II,  harmony 
sometimes  becomes  an  important  element  of  structure, 
particularly  in  the  rondo  and  variation  forms,  and  in  Haydn's 
and  Mozart's  variations  the  harmonic  plan  is  not  sufficiently 
varied  to  provide  this  much  needed  contrast.  Beethoven, 
however,  always  mij  jh  more  free  in  the  use  of  modulation 
than  his  predecessors,  imparts  to  these  variations  almost 
at  the  outset  great  variety  of  key,  and  in  all  his  episodes 
ranges  freely  about,  unhampered  by  limitations.  In  meas- 
ure 28,  for  example,  he  suddenly  starts  towards  the  key 


0«Vkrt  TBACHHK : 


/(>fSZ.t' 


202  THE  APPRECIATION    OF  MUSIO 

of  B-flat  minor,  only  to  emerge  a  moment  later  in  C-major, 
The  passage,  beginning  at  measure  39,  not  only  provides 
that  relief  from  too  great  insistence  on  melody  which  we 
have  already  referred  to  as  characteristic  of  his  episodes, 
but  its  harmonies  are  purposely  vague,  leaving  us  in  doubt 
until  the  last  moment  as  to  their  ultimate  conclusion. 
An  interesting  and  beautiful  effect  is  again  produced,  at 
measures  167-177,  by  the  changes  of  key,  while  the  scale 
passages  that  follow  introduce  further  harmonic  variety. 
At  measure  206  begins  a  passage  that  seems  to  intend  the 
key  of  D-flat,  but  again  our  expectations  are  not  realized. 
So  that  the  total  impression  we  receive  from  the  harmony 
of  this  movement  is  of  a  more  complete  unity  and  variety 
than  is  produced  by  the  themes  themselves. 

It  must  also  be  noted  in  general  that  this  freedom  of 
harmony  is  one  of  the  signs  of  advancement  in  the  art 
of  music,  and  that  at  the  present  time  the  combination  of 
chords  is  much  less  restricted  than  was  the  case  in  Bee- 
thoven's day.  And  this  steady  advance  has  I  een  as 
steadily  opposed  by  theorists.  When  we  remember  that 
Monteverde  (1567-1643)  was  bitterly  criticised  for  intro- 
ducing in  a  chord  the  unprepared  dominant  seventh,  making 
thereby  a  dissonance  almost  as  familiar  to  modern  ears  as  is  the 
simple  major  triad  —  we  can  easily  realize  how  difficult  it  was 
for  people  in  Beethoven's  time  to  unders^tand  his  far-reaching 
modulations.  The  steady  progress  is  further  illustrated  by 
Wagner's  music-dramas,  which  were  considered  when  they 
first  appeared  as  almost  cacophonous  in  their  harmoniza- 
tion, but  which  now  seem  perfectly  simple  and  normal. 


BEETHOVEN  —  ///  208 

V.    The  Universality  of  Beethoven's  Genius. 

A  piece  of  music  like  this  is  a  human  document.  It 
embraces  so  many  phases  of  human  feeling,  and  it  places 
them  all,  as  it  were,  in  such  proper  focus  that  we  feel  in 
listening  to  it  as  though  we  had  come  in  contact  with  ele- 
mental human  experience.  This  music  is  not  unapproach- 
ably grand ;  we  hear  in  it  echoes  of  our  own  strivings,  hopes, 
and  despairs.  And  it  is  this  sense  of  proportion,  this  wide- 
ness  of  vision,  that  makes  Beethoven's  music  so  universal. 
For  in  the  last  analysis  the  effect  of  any  work  of  art  depends 
on  the  artist's  sense  of  values;  a  fine  situation  in  a  novel  is 
all  the  finer  for  being  set  against  a  proper  background;  a 
tragedy  must  have  moments  of  relief;  beauty  alone,  whether 
in  a  painting  or  a  piece  of  music,  soon  palls  upon  us ;  in  the 
greatest  works  of  art  this  sense  of  values  —  this  feeling  for 
proportion  —  is  always  present  to  save  the  situation  (what- 
ever it  may  be)  from  the  deadly  sin  of  being  uninteresting. 

Beethoven  continually  gives  evidence  of  his  mastery 
over  this  important  element  in  composition.  The  beauty 
of  his  melodies  never  palls.  Before  that  point  is  reached 
there  is  some  sudden  change  of  feeling,  some  unexpected  turn 
of  melody  or  modulation,  some  brusque  expression  that  shocks 
us  out  of  our  dream.  He  is  particularly  fond  of  the  latter 
device,  and  frequently  lulls  us  into  a  fancied  quiet  only  to 
awaken  us  abruptly  when  we  least  expect  it.  With  him 
everything  has  its  proportionate  value,  so  that  we  get  a 
clearly  defined  impression  of  the  whole  work,  just  as  in  a 
fine  novel  the  values  are  so  carefully  preserved  that  we  feel 


204  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

the  locality  of  every  incident,  and  come  to  know  the  char- 
acters as  we  know  our  own  friends. 

One  who  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  andante  of  the 
Fifth  Symphony  feels  this  quality  as  predominant.  We  are 
not  enraptured  by  the  theme  itself,  as  we  are  by  that  of 
Mozart's  andante  from  the  string  quartet  (referred  to  in 
Chapter  X),  but  we  feel  the  charm  of  incident  and  by-play, 
we  are  just  as  much  interested  in  the  connecting  passages 
as  we  are  in  any  other  part  of  the  piece;  and  we  think  of 
it  all  as  we  do  of  a  finely  written  play,  where  one  incident 
hangs  on  another,  and  nothing  happens  that  does  not  bear 
on  the  plot. 

Thus,  judging  music  from  the  standpoint  of  universal 
human  feeling,  Beethoven  reaches  the  highest  point  in  its 
development.  No  other  composer,  before  or  since,  has 
equalled  him  in  this  particular,  and  the  more  we  study 
him  the  more  we  find  in  him.  Repeated  hearings  do  not 
dim  the  luster  of  his  genius,  nor  have  the  great  composers 
who  have  followed  him  had  as  broad  a  survey  of  human 
life  as  he  possessed. 

Suggestions  for  Collateral  Reading. 

Hadow:  ''Oxford  History,"  Vol.  V.  Parry:  "" Studies  of 
Great  Composers."  Mason:  "Beethoven  and  His  Fore' 
runners"  Chapters  VTI,   VIII,  and  IX. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

BEETHOVEN— IV. 

I.    Beethoven's  Humor. 

One  of  Beethoven's  most  prominent  characteristics, 
without  a  special  consideration  of  which  no  account  of 
him  would  be  at  all  complete,  was  his  humor.  In  the 
three  foregoing  chapters  we  have  had  passing  glimpses  of 
it:  we  have  noted  his  distaste  for  the  obvious,  the  trite, 
the  conventional,  and  his  fondness  for  breaking  in  on  the 
tranquillity  of  his  audience,  sometimes  in  danger  of  lapsing 
into  inattentive  dullness,  with  all  manner  of  shocks  and 
surprises  —  clashing  chords  in  the  midst  of  soft  passages, 
unexpected  modulations  to  distant  keys,  piquant  interrup- 
tions of  rhythm,  long  holds,  sudden  spasms  of  wild  speed. 
All  such  tricks  were  dear  to  him  as  means  of  avoiding  the 
monotony  which  is  the  one  unpardonable  sin  of  an  artist, 
and  of  attaining  constant  novelty  and  a  kaleidoscopic 
diversity  of  effect.  None  of  his  predecessors,  and  perhaps 
none  of  his  successors,  carried  to  such  lengths  as  he  did 
this  peculiar  kind  of  musical  humor.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
essentially  "  Beethovenish  "  of  all  his  qualities. 

The  particular  form  of  movement  in  which  his  humor 
attained  its  freest  scope  (though  it  is  hardly  ever  entirely 
absent  in  anything  that  he  wrote)  was  the  minuet  of  his 

205 


206  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

earlier,  and  the  scherzo  of  his  later  sonatas  and  symphonies. 
The  minuet  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  which  we  have  discussed 
in  Chapter  VII,  though  not  entirely  lacking  in  the  element 
of  whim  and  perversity  which  gives  rise  to  humor,  was 
primarily  stately,  formal,  and  suave.  When  we  listen  to  a 
minuet  of  this  old  school,  our  mind's  eye  conjures  up  the 
picture  of  a  group  of  eighteenth  century  dames  and  cava- 
liers, hoop-skirted  and  bewigged,  gravely  going  through 
the  set  evolutions  of  their  dance  with  unfailing  dignity  and 
courtly  grace.  From  such  a  scene  a  Beethoven  scherzo 
whisks  us  in  a  moment  to  some  merry  gathering  of  peasants, 
where  all  is  wild  conviviality,  boisterous  rejoicing,  and 
unrestrained  high  spirits. 

Doubtless  this  contrast  was  in  some  measure  due,  as 
Sir  George  Grove  points  out  in  an  interesting  passage, 
to  the  differences  of  the  social  conditions  under  which  the 
composers  lived.  "The  musicians  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury," he  says,  "were  too  commonly  the  domestic  servants 
of  archbishops  and  princes,  wore  powder  and  pigtails, 
and  swords,  and  court  dresses,  and  gold  lace,  dined  at  the 
servants'  table,  and  could  be  discharged  at  a  moment's 
notice  like  ordinary  lackeys.  Being  thus  forced  to  regulate 
their  conduct  by  etiquette,  they  could  not  suddenly  change 
all  their  habits  when  they  came  to  make  their  music,  or 
give  their  thoughts  and  feelings  the  free  and  natural  vent 
which  they  would  have  had,  but  for  the  habits  engendered 
by  the  perpetual  curb  and  restraint  of  their  social  position. 
But  Beethoven  had  set  such  social  rules  and  restrictions 
at  naught.     It  was  his  nature,  one  of  the  most  character- 


BEETHOVEN  — IV  207 

istic  things  in  him,  to  be  free  and  unrestrained.  Almost 
with  his  first  appearance  in  Vienna  he  behaved  as  the 
equal  of  everyone  he  met,  and  after  he  had  begun  to  feel 
his  own  way  his  music  is  constantly  showing  the  indepen- 
dence of  his  mind.  "^ 

Whatever  the  causes  of  this  mental  independence  of 
Beethoven,  whatever  part  of  it  was  due  to  changed  social 
conditions,  and  what  to  his  purely  personal  character, 
there  is  ample  testimony  to  its  existence  in  his  biography. 
The  man  who  could  throw  a  badly  cooked  stew  at  the 
head  of  the  waiter,  who  could  in  a  fit  of  temper  publicly 
shake  his  fist  under  the  window  of  one  of  his  best  friends 
and  patrons,  who  could  haughtily  refuse  to  make  the 
ordinary  salutations  to  his  emperor  and  empress  on  a  chance 
meeting,  lest  he  appear  servile,  and  who  when  he  was 
asked  whether  he  were  of  noble  blood  answered  proudly 
that  his  nobility  lay  in  his  head  and  in  his  heart,  was  not 
likely  to  pay  exaggerated  respect  to  traditions,  whether 
in  life  or  in  art.  Indeed,  perhaps  the  deepest  secret  of  his 
greatness  was  that  while,  as  his  sketch-books  signally  prove, 
he  spared  no  pains  or  labor  to  conform  his  work  to  those 
great  natural  laws  which  are  above  all  individual  wills, 
he  paid  not  the  slightest  respect  to  mere  rules  and  conven- 
tions, and  held  especially  in  contempt  the  arbitrary  codes 
of  pedants  and  p^'dagogues.  "It  is  not  allowed.^"  he 
inquired  quizzically,  when  some  such  dogmatist  objected 
to  a  passage  he  had  written:  "Very  well,  then,  /  allow  it." 

Little  wonder  is  it,  then,  that  such  a  daring  spirit,  such 

'  Grove's  "Beethoven  and  His  Nine  Symphonies,"  page  35. 


208 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


a  hater  of  the  timid  and  the  droning,  such  a  passionate 
lover  of  the  individual,  the  striking,  the  bizarre,  and  even 
the  grotesque,  found  a  congenial  task  in  infusing  humor 
and  irresponsibility  into  the  classic  minuet.  This  form^ 
already  the  lightest  part  of  the  sonata  and  symphony, 
already  consecrated  to  the  expression  of  the  composer's 
gayest  and  most  graceful  thoughts,  needed  only  to  be  made 
plastic  enough  to  include  fantasy  and  banter  in  order  to 
give  free  scope  to  Beethoven's  most  frolicsome  moods. 
To  the  task  of  thus  aerating  the  symphonic  minuet  he 
applied  himself  very  early.  Take,  as  an  instance,  the 
minuet  of  the  very  first  piano  sonata,  opus  2,  number  1. 


FIGURE  LVIII. 


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BEETHO  YEN  —  IV.  209 

As  a  whole  it  breathes  the  polite  graciousness  of  Mozart. 
The  first  cadence,  especially,  recalls  the  sweetly  formal 
manner  of  the  old  school.  (See  Figure  LVIII  (a).)  Yet 
a  moment  later  Beethoven  begins  to  play  with  this  very 
cadence  in  true  scherzo  fashion,  like  a  cat  with  a  mouse, 
twice  pawing  it  gently,  so  to  speak,  and  then  pouncing  on 
it  with  fury:  {(h)  in  the  same  figure.) 

In  the  other  two  sonatas  bearing  the  same  opus  number 
he  adopts  the  name  scherzo  —  which  is  an  Italian  word 
meaning  "joke"  or  "jest"  —  and  with  it  introduces  still 
more  of  the  playful  spirit;  and  as  the  sonatas  progress  we 
find  this  tendency  growing,  until  in  opus  26  and  opus  28 
we  have  full-fledged,  though  rather  brief,  examples  of  the 
real  Beethoven  scherzo.  Let  us  look  at  these  more  care- 
fully. 

II.  Scherzos  from  Beethoven's  Sonatas. 
Example  for  Analysis,  No.  22.* 
Beethoven:     Scherzo '  from  the  Twelfth  Sonata,  opus  26. 

We  note  first  of  all  that  though  the  time-signature  is 
ihree-four,  as  in  the  old  minuet,  the  pace  is  much  more 
rapid  —  "allegro  molto"  —  so  that  a  sense  of  bustle  and 
restless  activity  is  substituted  for  the  well-bred  deliberate- 
ness  of  the  minuet.  This  acceleration  of  time  is  observ- 
able in  most  of  the  scherzos. 

Again,  the  theme  (measures  1-17)  is  of  most  energetic 
character,  which  is  even  further  intensified,  on  its  re-en- 

*  For  convenience  of  reference  number  the  measures  and  partial  measures  conseo* 
utively.    There  will  be  69  in  the  scherzo  proper,  and  31  in  the  trio. 


2ia  THE  APPRECIATION  OF  MUSIC 

trance  in  the  bass  at  measure  46,  by  a  rushing  accompani- 
ment in  eighth-notes. 

A  characteristic  passage  precedes  this  return  of  the 
theme.  To  make  the  excitement  more  welcome  when  it 
comes  Beethoven  has  one  of  his  "lulls"  for  sixteen  meas- 
ures (31-46),  during  which  the  motion  dies  out  and  all 
seems  to  stagnate  for  a  moment.  This  sort  of  quiescence, 
in  which  one  takes  breath  for  a  new  access  of  energy,  is 
always  consummately  managed  by  Beethoven,  who  has 
made  the  "lull"  a  famous  device. 

The  trio  calls  for  no  particular  comment.  It  is  in 
binary  form,  while  the  scherzo  itself  is  ternary. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  23. 
Beethoven:     Scherzo  from  the  Fifteenth  Sonata^  opus  28. 

The  tempo  is  again  brisk  —  "  allegro  vivace. " 

The  theme  is  exceedingly  whimsical :  long  notes  jumping 
dow  n  through  four  octaves  —  first  single  notes,  then  thirds, 
then  sixths  —  followed  each  time  by  a  quaint  little  cadence 
in  which  the  staccato  touch  is  prominent. 

The  section  of  contrast  after  the  double-bar  (measures 
33-48)  takes  the  form  of  a  sequence,  in  which  the  left 
hand  part  carries  the  original  theme. 

In  the  return  of  the  theme  we  find  one  of  those  violent 
dynamic  contrasts  so  beloved  by  Beethoven,  the  theme  in 
measures  49-53  being  sounded  in  a  mild  piano  and  then, 
without  warning,  in  measures  58-61,  pealed  forth  fortis- 
simo in  large  chords. 


BEETHOVEN  — IV 


211 


The  trio  is  again  inconspicuous,  save  for  its  charming 
harmonization. 

These  two  scherzos  give  a  good  idea  of  how  Beethoven 
gives  play  to  his  whimsicality  in  his  piano  sonatas,^  but 
to  get  the  Beethoven  scherzo  at  its  highest  power  we  must 
go  to  the  symphonies.  There  he  has  all  the  wondrous 
potentialities  of  instrumental  coloring  to  fire  his  imagina- 
tion, and  a  canvas  broad  enough  to  afford  scope  for  endless 
ingenuity.  It  is  a  fascinating  study  to  trace  out  how  he 
gradually  advanced  in  the  power  to  utilize  all  these  possi- 
bilities. 


III.    The  Scherzos  of  Beethoven's  Symphonies. 

The  third  movement  of  the  first  symphony,  though 
called  "Menuetto, "  is  marked  "allegro  molto  e  vivace," 
and  with  its  spirited  theme,  fascinating  harmonies,  and 
striking  rhythms,  is  essentially  a  scherzo.  Perhaps  the 
most  interesting  single  feature  of  it  is  the  completely 
Beethovenish  means  adopted  for  getting  back  to  the  theme 
and  the  home  key  of  C-major  after  the  section  of  contrast. 

FIGURE  LIX. 


*  The  student  should  also  study  the  interesting  scherzo  of  the  Eighteenth  Sonata,  which 
IS  not  in  minuet  form  but  in  r^ular  sonata-form.     It  is  carried  out  with  inmiense  spirit. 


212 


THE  APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 


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The  passage  is  shown  in  Figure  LIX,  and  merits  care- 
ful study.  From  D-flat  major,  a  key  far  distant  from  C, 
return  is  made  by  imperceptible  degrees.  At  the  same 
time  there  is  a  crescendo  of  power,  until  finally  the  theme 
breaks  out  vigorously  in  the  home-key.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  brief  phrases  played  by  the  left  hand  in  this  pas- 
sage are  made  from  the  first  two  notes  of  the  theme  itself. 
Thus  closely  does  Beethoven  stick  to  his  text. 

The  forcible  syncopated  rhythms  and  dissonant  har- 
monies near  the  end  of  this  movement  also  deserve  notice. 
They  give  it  a  rugged  character  strangely  at  variance  with 
its  title  of  "  minuet. " 

In  the  second  symphony  the  name  scherzo  is  adopted, 
and  the  phials  of  mirth  are  freely  opened.  Sudden  alterna- 
tions of  loud  and  soft  are  especially  conspicuous,  as  will 
be  seen  by  referring  to  the  theme,  quoted  in  (a)  in  Figure 
LX.  Each  new  measure,  here,  brings  something  unex- 
pected and  deliciously  piquant. 

Violent  shifts  of  accent  on  to  ordinarily  unimportant 
parts  of  the  measure  will  be  noticed  in  the  twenty-first  and 
twenty-fifth  measures,  affording  relief  from  what  might 
without  them  become  monotonous. 

A    little    later,    after    the    reappearance    of    the    theme. 


BEETHOVEN  — IV 


218 


Beethoven  indulges  in  one  of  those  pasisages  which  puzzle 
us  and  pique  our  curiosity  (Figure  LX  (6).)  Where  is  h 
going?  we  ask  ourselves,  what  will  he  do  next?  But  after 
a  few  moments'  suspense,  in  which  the  music  seems  to 
be  spinning  about  in  an  eddy,  so  to  speak,  it  falls  into  the 
current  again,  and  all  goes  cheerfully  to  the  end. 


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In  the  trio,  the  student  should  note  the  whimsicality 
of  the  long  hold  on  an  F-sharp  through  six  entire  measures, 
pianissimo,  followed  by  a  sudden  loud  chord  on  A. 

Indeed,  the  prankishness  of  the  entire  movement  is 
inexhaustible. 


21-1  THE   APPRECIATION   OF  MUSIC 

We  do  not  reach  the  full  stature  of  the  Beethoven  scherzo, 
however,  until  we  get  to  that  of  the  third  or  "Eroica" 
symphony.  In  this  wonderful  movement  we  have  a  per- 
fect masterpiece  of  irresistible,  tireless,  kaleidoscopic  humor, 
a  great  epic  of  irresponsibility  which  must  be  ranked  with 
such  unique  expressions  of  the  humorous  spirit  in  litera- 
ture as  Shakespeare's  Falstaff  plays,  Sterne's  "Sentimental 
Journey,"  or  Stevenson's  "New  Arabian  Nights."  Well 
may  Sir  George  Grove  say  of  it,  that  it  is  "perhaps  the 
•most  Beethovenish  of  all  his  compositions,"  and  that  in  it 
"  the  tragedy  and  comedy  of  life  are  startlingly  combined. " 

It  begins  with  a  stealthy,  soft  succession  of  staccato 
chords  in  the  strings,  uniformly  pianissimo  and  yet  most 
insistent  in  rhythm.  Against  this  is  presently  outlined 
the  most  piquant  little  theme  by  the  oboe  ((a)  in  Figure 
LXI);  the  chords  go  on  again,  and  then  sounds  above 
them  once  more  this  incisive  little  theme.  In  the  contrast 
section  after  the  double-bar  comes  first  more  playing  with 
the  rapid  soft  chords,  and  then  a  charming  bit  of  "  imita- 
tion" of  the  theme  from  one  voice  to  another  ((b)  in  Figure 
LXI).  The  note  D  is  finally  reached  in  this  way,  and  then 
Beethoven,  instead  of  making  some  trite  and  uninteresting 
modulation  back  to  E-flat,  whither  he  wishes  to  go  in  order 
to  begin  his  restatement,  simply  goes  on  sounding  D  for 
ten  measures,  piano,  and  then  without  warning  drops 
down  to  B-flat,  pianissimo,  for  four  measures,  and  there- 
with proceeds  with  his  theme  again.  The  mystery  and 
charm  of  this  return  to  key  are  indescribable;  the  persistent 
pianissimo  adds  much  to  its  extraordinary  effectiveness. 


BEETHOVEN  — IV 


216 


Now,   however,   with   the  return  of  the  theme,   we  at 
last  get  a  good  ear-filling  fortissimo,  the  whole  orchestra 

FIGURE  LXI. 


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216  THE   APPRECIATION   OF   MUSIC 

taking  part  in  a  vigorous  game  of  musical  tag  (the  theme 
made  into  a  canon  —  (c)  in  Figure  LXI).  A  fine  climax 
is  reached  in  a  passage  of  bold  leaping  melody  in  the  strings, 
in  which  the  accents  are  dramatically  placed  on  the  second 
instead  of  the  first  beats  of  the  measures,  followed  and 
completed  by  staccato  chords  on  the  wood-wind  instru- 
ments ((d)  in  Figure  LXI).  This  is  enormously  vigorous, 
and  makes  a  fitting  culmination  for  this  first  part  of  the 
movement,  besides  giving  an  opportunity  for  still  greater 
effect  later,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  moment.  After  it,  a  cadence 
is  soon  reached,  though  not  before  the  strings  and  wood- 
wind instruments  have  had  a  brief  whimsical  dialogue  on 
the  subject  of  the  staccato  chords. 

So  far  all  is  bantering  merriment,  iridescent  color,  and 
energetic  high  spirits.  But  in  the  trio,  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  of  all  Beethoven's  strokes  of  genius,  the  mood 
changes,  and  while  the  quick  three-four  measure  is  still 
felt  underneath,  the  long  notes,  and  the  deep  mellow  tones 
of  the  horns,  give  an  almost  tragic  quality  to  the  music. 
The  theme,  given  out  by  three  horns  alone,  with  a  brief 
cadence  by  the  strings,  does  not  reach  its  full  stature  until 
its  recurrence  near  the  end  of  the  trio.  In  its  second  phrase 
the  lowest  horn  reaches,  and  holds  for  two  measures,  a  D-flat 
which  is  of  almost  unearthly  solemnity  of  effect.  This 
passage  repays  careful  study,  so  wonderfully  does  it  use  the 
simplest  means  to  gain  the  highest  beauty.  Sir  George 
Grove  well  says  of  it:  "If  ever  horns  talked  like  flesh  and 
blood,  they  do  it  here." 

The  scherzo,  on  its  return,  goes  on  much  as  at  first. 


BEETHOVEN  — IV 


217 


Yet  Beethoven  still  has  one  last  shot  in  reserve,  as  we 
suggested  a  moment  back.  When  he  comes  to  that  splen- 
didly proud  passage  of  descending  leaps  in  the  strings 
(Figure  LXI,  d.),  instead  of  repeating  it,  as  he  did  at  first, 
in  the  same  rhythm,  he  suddenly  transforms  it  into  even 
half  notes,  which  crash  downwards  like  an  avalanche, 
quite  irresistible.   (See  Figure  LXII.)     The  effect  is  again 

FIGURE  LXII. 


tr 


'Az 


■-r 


-| i5>- 


± 


-i—&- 


3=J 


SiFli 


-^ 


w=^ 


^ 


m 


4^H 


ft=«r^ 


ii 


?=M 


tT 


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S^;:$ 


M 


Alia  breve. 


-*■  ^ 


It 


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t/'^ 


WM^^ 


e 


T- 


d: 


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etc. 

* 


5 


indescribable  in  words;  its  gigantesque  vigor  is  of  a  kind 
to  be  found  nowhere  but  in  Beethoven,  and  in  him  only 
in  his  inspired  moments. 

In  this  wonderful  movement  the  Beethoven  scherzo  first 
reaches  its  full  stature.  It  may  be  questioned  whether  he 
ever  achieved  anything  finer. 

Yet  in  its  own  way  the  scherzo  of  the  fifth  symphony  ^ 

*  The  fourth  symphony  has  again,  like  the  first,  a  minuet,  though  a  most  active  one. 


218  THE    APPRECIATION    OF   MUSIC 

is  equally  original  and  characteristic,  and  as  we  have  already 
analyzed  two  movements  of  that  symphony  we  will  now 
make  a  detailed  analysis  of  this  movement  too. 

Example  for  Analysis,  No.  24. 
Beethoven:  Scherzo  from  the  Fifth  Symphony. 

This  scherzo  is  interlinked  with  the  finale,  into  which 
it  is  merged  by  a  famous  passage  derived  from  the  scherzo 
itself,  and  leading  up  from  the  softest  pianissimo  to  a  grand 
outburst  of  the  full  orchestra.  We  shall,  however,  end 
our  analysis  where  this  passage  begins.  The  complete 
scherzo,  therefore,  omitting  this  link-passage,  will  have 
three  hundred  and  thirty  measures,  which  should  be  num- 
bered continuously  for  easy  reference  (counting  the  first 
partial  measure  as  one,  as  well  as  the  incomplete  measures 
at  the  beginning  of  the  trio). 

The  theme  is  of  a  very  curious  character,  certainly 
nothing  like  the  usual  bustling  scherzo  theme,  but  on  the 
contrary  mysterious,  vague,  groping.  Berlioz  says  of  it: 
"It  is  as  fascinating  as  the  gaze  of  a  mesmerizer. "  After 
seventeen  measures  of  this,  a  more  energetic,  rhythmic 
theme  succeeds  (20-45)  given  out  by  the  horns,  fortissimo, 
with  rugged  chords  in  accompaniment,  in  which  we  recog- 
nize a  new  variant  of  that  motive  of  three  short  notes  and 
a  long,  which  was  so  prominent  in  the  first  movement  (see 
Chapter  XII).  The  remainder  of  the  scherzo  proper  is 
worked  up  out  of  these  two  contrasting  strains,  thus: 
46-71,  from  the  first,  mysterious  one;  72-97,  from  the  sec- 
ond,  energetic   one;   98-133,    beginning  softly   in   mystery 


BEETHOVEN  — IV  219 

with  the  first,  and  later  (116)  continuing  with  it  a  new, 
more  lively  melody  (note  how  the  phrase  of  measures  3 
and  4  persists  in  the  bass  all  through  this  part);  134-141, 
concluding  cadence,  on  the  second  strain. 

The  trio,  measures  142  to  238,  is  irresistibly  ludicrous 
in  the  elephantine  antics  through  which  the  unwieldy 
double-basses  are  put.  They  announce  (142-148)  a  scram- 
bling fugue  theme,  which  is  "answered"  —  in  imitation  — 
several  times  at  higher  pitches  (measures  148,  154,  156) 
by  the  other  and  more  agile  stringed  instruments.  A 
sonorous  close  is  reached  at  the  double  bar. 

Then  comes  a  most  grotesque  and  amusing  passage, 
in  which,  three  several  times,  these  poor  lumbering  double 
basses  hurl  themselves  upon  the  theme,  twice  only  to  give 
up  in  despair  after  the  first  measure  and  pause  as  if  for 
breath.  The  effect  of  this  brave  attack  and  utter  failure 
to  "keep  up  the  pace"  is  irresistibly  comic.  But  the  third 
time  proverbially  never  fails,  and  in  the  measures  follow- 
ing 168  they  hold  to  their  effort  with  bull-dog  tenacity,  and 
succeed  in  reaching  a  safe  haven  in  the  G  of  measure  173. 
Thereupon  the  theme  enters  once  more  above  them,  and 
is  once  more  carried  through  an  exciting  fugal  chase,  the 
entrances,  which  the  student  should  trace  out  carefully, 
occurring  in  measures  176,  180,  182,  and  184,  each  time  a 
little  higher  up.  The  cadence  is  reached  in  200,  and  the 
entire  passage  from  the  inept  onslaughts  of  the  basses  is 
almost  literally  repeated  (200-227),  except  that  now  it 
becomes  quieter  and  quieter,  and  finally  leads  back  to  the 
mysterious  scherzo  theme  (239-257). 


220 


THE   APPRECIATION    OF   MUSIC 


This  time  the  ruggedness  of  the  second  strain  of  the 
scherzo  has  all  disappeared,  and  it  remains  delicate,  almost 
ethereal,  through  measures  258  to  330,  with  which  the 
scherzo  proper  ends.  As  has  been  stated,  no  complete 
pause  is  reached  before  the  finale,  but  instead  of  the  cadence 
we  have  placed  at  the  end,  there  is  a  long  passage  leading 
over  into  the  splendid  march-like  theme  of  the  last  move- 
ment. How  this  passage  is  made  out  of  the  themes  of 
the  scherzo  itself  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  Figure  LXIII. 


FIGURE  LXIII. 


J-' — ^Jr. — 

-Jr. 

-.J-^— 

a. 

c^Hrfi 

-^  b  hA   •       n»     v» 

1*        1*         ' 

M            s*         \* 

^               1*             '* 

m        >•      >• 

I 

r     1 

PP/> 

•         '• 

• 

• 

L     L 

L       etc., 
leading  to: 

CJ^H-B— 1 

1 

1 ' 

— 1 

— 1 

^^-H4^-^:^. 

25*  . 

J-.- 

— ?si- 

— s^^ 

m 


Xf 


:f  "^  '^  tf  r  r  tr  "" 


--fc 


--^ 


-^-^- 


-^-^- 


-'5P' 1 1- 


ia 


s 


With  this  scherzo  from  the  Fifth  Symphony  we  may 
take  our  farewell  of  Beethoven  for  the  present,  and  also 
of  the  art  in  which  he  represents  one  of  the  great  culmina- 
ting points.  After  him  it  seemed  to  musicians  for  a  while 
as  if  the  triumphs  of  organic  musical  structure  could  no 


BEETHOVEN— IV  2a 

further  go,  and  they  turned  their  attention  in  other  direc- 
tions, and  sought  for  other  kinds  of  interest.  But  to  follow 
them  on  these  new  paths  is  not  a  part  of  our  present  under- 
taking. 

IV.  General  Summary. 
We  have  now  followed  the  continuous  and  unbroken 
course  of  the  development  of  music  from  the  most  primitive 
sounds  grouped  together  in  rude  patterns  by  savages,  up 
to  the  symphonies  of  Beethoven,  which  must  ahvays  remain 
among  its  most  wonderful  and  perfect  monuments.  We 
have  seen  how  all  music,  which  has  any  beauty  or  interest, 
is  based  on  certain  short  characteristic  groups  of  tones 
called  motives,  and  how  these  are  made  to  take  on  variety, 
without  losing  unity,  by  being  "imitated,"  "transposed," 
"restated  after  contrast,"  "inverted,"  "augmented"  or 
**  diminished, "  "  shifted  in  rhythm, "  and  otherwise  manip- 
ulated. We  have  examined  simple  cases  of  this  treat- 
ment of  musical  ideas  in  representative  folk-songs.  We 
have  seen  how  the  polyphonic  style  of  Bach,  in  which  these 
bits  of  melody  occur  everywhere  throughout  the  tissue  of 
the  music,  arose  and  reached  its  perfection.  We  have 
studied  the  simple  dances  which,  adopted  by  the  musi- 
cians of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  were 
developed  by  them  and  combined  in  "suites."  Then, 
proceeding  to  a  higher  stage  of  artistic  evolution,  we  have 
examined  the  various  plans  which  composers  devised  for 
making  longer  pieces  in  which  variety  and  unity  were  still 
able  to  coexist  —  such  forms  as  the  minuet,  the  theme 
and  variations,  the  rondo,  and  the  sonata-form.     In  con- 


222  THE   APPRECIATION   OF   MUSIC 

elusion,  we  have  analyzed  representative  examples  of 
music  composed  in  these  typical  forms  during  the  great 
classical  period  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven. 

Yet  all  this  study  and  analysis,  which  may  often  have 
seemed  to  the  reader  uselessly  detailed  and  dully  scientific, 
has  been  made  with  an  ulterior  aim  in  view,  and  unless 
that  aim  has  been  in  some  degree  attained,  our  work  has 
been  futile  indeed.  The  great  object  of  musical  analysis 
must  always  be  to  concentrate  the  attention  of  the  music- 
lover,  to  focus  his  mind  as  well  as  his  ears  on  the  melodies, 
and  their  developments,  which  he  hears,  and  so  eventually 
to  increase  his  pleasure  in  music,  and  to  help  him  to  sub- 
stitute for  that  "  drowsy  reverie,  relieved  by  nervous  thrills,'* 
an  active,  joyful,  vigorous  co-operation  with  composers, 
through  which  alone  he  can  truly  appreciate  their  art. 

That,  and  that  alone,  is  the  object  of  the  analytic  study 
of  music.  For  what  shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  can  tell  a 
second  theme  from  a  transition-passage,  or  a  minuet  from 
a  set  of  variations,  if  he  has  not  meanwhile,  through  this 
exercise,  got  into  vital  contact  with  the  music  itself?  But 
that  he  can  do,  no  matter  how  great  his  natural  sensibility 
to  sound,  only  by  learning  how  to  listen. 


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